Int J Curr Pharm Res, Vol 15, Issue 2, 7-16Review Article


A CRITICAL REVIEW AND SIGNIFICANCE OF LIPID-BASED AYURVEDIC DOSAGE FORMS GHRITA AND TAILA: PART I-REVIEW AND STATUS

NARENDRA BHATT1*, MANASI DESHPANDE2

*1Research and Industry, CRIA Consultants Pvt. Ltd. 15, Bachubai Building, J. Bhatankar Marg, Parel, Mumbai 400012, 2Department of Dravyaguna Vigynan, Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed to be University, College of Ayurved, Pune, 411043
Email: drnsbhatt@gmail.com

Received: 08 Jan 2023, Revised and Accepted: 17 Feb 2023

ABSTRACT

This review discusses in detail one of the oldest lipid-based dosage form, Sneha Kalpana as described in Ayurved, one of the ancient medical systems. Here the vital constituents of plants are extracted as assimilates in lipid forms, ghrit–the clarified butter or taila–the oil. These dosage forms are administered through different routes for specific therapeutic benefits varying from topical nourishment, anti-inflammatory activity, and healing of tissue systems or even to treat serious neuro-muscular or neurological conditions. This review highlights the basic concepts of Ayurved behind the drug delivery approach and provides details of different processes of preparation or manufacture.

Lipid-based drug delivery systems (LBDDS) are one of the emerging technologies designed to address the challenges of solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble ingredients. Understanding the principles behind the processes–the right amount of heat, time, and intensity is important for standardization to ensure the availability of bio constituents. Also, it is essential to understand the relevance of therapeutic principles behind these dosage forms to choose an appropriate technological adaptation for its optimum clinical effectiveness.

Keywords: Ayurvedic dosage forms, Sneha Kalpana, Standardization, Lipid-based drug delivery

© 2023 The Authors. Published by Innovare Academic Sciences Pvt Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.22159/ijcpr.2023v15i2.2091 Journal homepage: https://innovareacademics.in/journals/index.php/ijcpr

INTRODUCTION

The word‘Sneha’ as defined in Sanskrit-‘snih dhatu ghajptayay’, “Snih Preetau”–represents an attribute of getting attached or unification as characterised by oleaginous or fat or fatty material of natural animal or plant origin. Kalpana originated from ‘krupusamarthe’–represents a process to transfer a natural substance into a specific therapeutic form [1, 2]. Origin of the word lipid is from the Greek word lipos meaning fats that implies any class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives obtained from different sources. Accordingly, ‘sneha kalpana’ is the process of coalition of these lipids. Sneha Kalpana is an Ayurvedic process of formation of a lipid-based therapeutic dosage form obtained by coalition of the oleaginous or fat substances and aqueous materials under well-defined conditions like duration and quantum of heat. This review provides comprehensive knowledge and information of Ayurvedic principles, processes of two main lipid-based dosage forms comprising of ghrita-clarified butter and taila-oils and their similarities and variances in therapeutic uses. Further this review attends to the progression of modern pharmaceutical requirements.

Need for the review of ayurvedic dosage forms

Ayurveda, the Indian System of medicine, offers a wide range of classical pharmaceutical dosage forms. These include specific guidelines for the selection of raw materials, meticulous methods of processes and various methods of administration to derive specific therapeutic benefits. This is the fourth in a series of reviews undertaken by the authors to provide all-inclusive information and knowledge of ingredients synergistic understanding of the preparation, processes, the mode of administration that are vital to adapt to new technologies to ensure safe and desired therapeutic effects of Ayurvedic products [3].

Review of the classics

Ghee, clarified butter obtained after boiling the butter on low flame is used for religious, gastronomic and medicinal purposes in India, while Taila, oil is used to preserve and provide many benefits. Ghee is among the five constituents of the ancient ritualistic recipe ‘panchamrit’ (five nectars) the others being curd, sugar, honey and milk which is prescribed in Ayurved for a variety of therapeutic properties. Natural ageing of ghee is considered to enhance its properties.

Vedic period (1500-500 B. C.)

Ghee is frequently mentioned as a part of ritualistic worship with fire in Yagnas [4] in Yajurveda as Havi and Ajya [5, 6], amongst one of the four ancient most written scriptures. Ajya, sarpi, navaneetaandaayuta are synonyms of ghrita in ancient Sanskrit scriptures, namely Shathapatha Brahmana [7]. Atharvaveda mentioned about pivaspaka and tailapaka, where toxic drugs are used in the processing [8]. Pauranik (Ancient Indian Texts of Knowledge and Wisdom) texts refer to various uses of oil and even preservation of dead body in a vessel containing oil [9]. In Kautilya Arthashastra, Chanakya explains that for Sneh preparation, one should pay 1/20th part as tax [10].

Samhita period

In Bruhatryee, the three ancient most Ayurveda treatises [Charak Samhita, Sushrut Samhita and Ashtang Sangraha], describe extensive use of Sneha Kalpana-this dosage form both for internal administration and external applications through different routes for a wide range of therapeutic purposes. The Charaka samhita mentions source and types of fats, ghee essentially of cow’s ghee and sesame oils, [11] for various therapeutic uses with different methods of preparation and even the indicators of process optimization, the siddhi Lakshna [12]. The Sushruta Samhita, under Ghritavarga has grouped therapeutic variances of three types as Purana Sarpi-old ghee, Maha Ghrita-potent ghee and Kumbha Ghrita–ghee made in earthen pot [13]. Sushrut further signifies lipid-based dosage forms in milieu of its types, uses, methods of preparation and process optimization [14]. Methods of preparation and various options to obtain the relative quantity of heat-snehapaka-are explained in Ashtang Hridaya [15] and Ashtang Sangraha (kalpasthan) [16] Kashyap Samhita, a text with focus on paediatrics has elaborated on snehdravya, source, classification and properties of lipid substances [17]. Harita Samhita has signified on the seven-and fifteen-day process required for clarified butter-ghrita and oils–taila respectively for therapeutic optimization [18]. Another ancient text, Bhelsamhita, endorses use of taila for massages as the main therapy for vataroga–neuromuscular and musculoskeletal disorders [19].

Compendia

Bhavaprakash–a compendium of Ayurvedic therapeutics, gives details of many lipid-based dosage forms [20]. Sharangadhara Samhita another classic on therapeutics has a separate chapter on Sneha Pakavidhi Adhyaya [21] elaborately describes methods of preparation and uses of ghee and oil formulations. Yogaratnakara [22], a major text on formulations, describes properties of oil, optimal choice of sesame oil in particular, methods of preparation, refinement procedures and indicators of the rightly completed process of preparation. Bhaishajya Ratnavali, a later period compilatory text suggests a procedure for fortification of ghee and oil under chapter Jwarachikitsa for the treatment of fevers [23].

Definitions of terms

Sneha Kalpana or Snehapaka may be defined as "An Ayurvedic pharmaceutical process to prepare lipid-based remedies from the kalka [paste of freshly prepared ingredients] mixed in a predefined proportion with Kwatha [an infusion or a decoction of parts or whole of medicinal plant or a group of medicinal plants], or any other liquid such as milk, self-expressed juice, meat juice; and subjecting this composite to precise amount and duration of heat of indicated pharmaceutical parameters to achieve desired therapeutic efficacy " [24].

Snehayoni–two sources

The main sources of lipid-based substances are categorized into two, sthavara meaning immovable as of plant origin like sesame, mustard, castor, and safflower and of jangama, mobile animal origin like milk, yoghurt, rendered animal fat and marrow of birds, fishes and quadrupeds [25].

Sneha types [26]

In Ayurveda the, lipid-based products based on origin are classified into four major categories.

Ghritakalpa-Ghee based, Taila kalpa-Oil based, Vasa kalpa-Rendered animal fat, Majjakalpa-Bone marrow fat

Sneha Guna-Attributes and significance of lipid-based substances [27-30]

Ghrita is considered the best lipid medium being able to assimilate the properties of other substances without losing or rather enhances its own attributes; this is described as ‘Samskarasya Anuvartanam’. Eight types of ghee having variable characteristics are used in Ayurveda as obtained from eight milk-producing animals; Goghrita, Cow’s ghee is considered the best and hence sacred. Though Sesame, Mustard and Castor oils are commonly used the sesameoil is considered the best.

Table 1: Attributes of lipid based substances

Lipid substances and origin Attributes Actions Indications
Ghrita-Ghee

GoGhrita

[Cow’s ghee]

Sweet, Heavy to digest, Unctuous, Soft,

Cooling

Promotes memory, intelligence, digestion, semen, ojas, Alleviates vata, pitta, toxicity, insanity, phthisis, inauspiciousness and fever

Bestows long life, prosperity, Rejuvenating

 Epilepsy, mal-absorption syndrome, chronic fever, otalgia, ksataksina, debility due to chest injury, intoxication, syncope, headache, loss of memory, cachexia, mania/phychosis, intermittent fever, erysipelas, disorders due to poison, pain in the female genital tract
Other Ghee

Mahisha Ghrita

[Ghee from buffalos’ milk]

 Sweet, Heavy to digest Cooling Mitigates pitta, rakta and vata, increases kapha, Pleasant Aphrodisiac, useful in insomnia, increase heaviness

Aja Ghrita

[Ghee from goats’ milk]

Astringent,

Sweet, Light, Cooling

 Increase digestive power, good for vision, increases strength, Useful in diarrhoea, tuberculosis, fever, cough, dyspnoea,
AavikaGhrita [Ghee from ewes’ milk] Hot, light, salty, sweet, unctuous, heavy Increase kapha, pitta Useful in cough and vataroga
OushtraGhrita [Ghee from camels’ milk] Pungent, salty, light, hot, Anti-poisonous increases digestive power mitigates kapha and vata, Cures worms useful in leprosy, abdominal tumours and enlargement of the abdomen
Ashwa Ghrita [Ghee from mare milk] Salty, Light, dry, hot Increases digestive fire, light after digestion, mitigates poison, nourishing Cures eye diseases and burning sensation, cure all vata types disease
HathiniGhrita [Ghee from Elephant-Cows] Heavy, sweet, astringent Nourishing to all tissues Providing strength and stability

Maanushi Ghrita

[Human Mother’s Milk)

 Sweet, light, Beneficial in aggravation of Kapha, Vata Gynaecological disorders, good for eyes and it is like nectar
Oils

Tilataila

Sesame oil

 Sweet, astringent, pungent minutes strong, piercing, hot Balance vatadosha, increase pitta slightly, improve memory, and intelligence, anti-aging, aphrodisiac, improves vigor, good for skin and hair, cleanse the body channels, improve appetizer, improve strength and immunity Useful for food preparation, massage and base for oil preparation, and useful to cure all types of diseases, wound, amenorrhea
Erand tail-Castor oil Sweet, pungent, astringent, sharp strong, piercing, Appetizer, digestive, age promoter, improve memory purgative, expel faeces removes toxin, cleans excess doshas out of the body Relieves body aches, cathartics, forcibly, moistening cures dryness, cooling and reduce swelling, useful in fever, abdominal disorders, lumps, rectal disorders, gout, abscess and various types of vata diseases
Sarshap tail-Mustard oil Pungent, hot, nutty taste Pacifies vatakapha and aggravates pitta externally, mustard is applied as paste (pradeha), fumigant (dhupana), diaphoretic (svedana massage powder (udvartana), scraping agent (pragharṣaṇa), poultice (upanaha) Leukoderma, cracked skin, fever, leprosy, wasting, insanity, epilepsy, swelling, rheumatoid arthritis, neurological disorders, gynecological disorders, earache, wounds, flatulence, splenomegaly
Vasa-Rendered Animal Fat
It is prescribed for the treatment of injury, fracture, trauma, prolapsed uterus, earache, headache, improves virility of the person and is useful for the person with physical exertion.
Majja-Bone Marrow
Vasa and Majja are neither too hot nor too cold. Majja enhances strength, Sukra, Rasadhatu, Kapha, Medodhatu

Puran ghrita [Old ghee]

The Ghrita, stored for to 1 to 15 y 10 to 100 y and 100 y are termed as purana, pra-purana Kumbha or Maha Ghrita, respectively by scholastic authors Arunadtta [31], Bhavaprakash [32], Chakradaata [33], Charak [34], Sushrut [35], and in Yogaratnakar [36]. The aged ghee is explained to have enhanced qualities for the treatment of Unmada-psychiatric disorder like Schizophrenia. It is administered orally as well as nasal, eye, massage and enema administration. Puran ghee alleviates all three doshas. It acquires a pungent taste and pungent post-digestive effect. It improves intelligence, vision, voice, the liver, kidneys, and brain function. It cures internal dryness and improves weight, luster, and digestion. It gives strength to brain, nerves, eyes, rectum and other body organs and relief from constipation. It nourishes gastrointestinal mucosa, lubricates it, enhances the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and strengthens the colonic flora of useful microbes. It increases marrow, semen, and ojas. It is especially useful in brain disorders, general weakness, insomnia, night blindness, brain disorders, fever, pneumonia and excess cough. This old age ghee is used in different ways such as nasya [nasal drops], akshipooran [a procedure–where in black gram paste compound is make around eye and ghee is filled in it and kept for 5-10 min], abhyang [massage or external application, basti [enema] and pana [oral intake]. Attributes, actions and Indications of lipid based substances are illustrated in table 1.

Salient features

The water soluble and fat-soluble constituents of the substances are assimilated into sneha, [the lipid base], thereby providing potent, enhanced and effective therapeutic attributes to the sneha.

Snehas, the lipid-based products are used for enhancement of jivana–life, varnya-complexion promotion, bala-strength and shariraupachaya–nourishment of body. These formulations could be administered variably for different therapeutic purposes. The lipid dosage forms have longer shelf life of around 3 y for medicated oils and 2 y for medicated ghee.

Pharmaceutical processes

Pharmaceutical process of Sneha kalpana involves following steps-

Preparation

Collection of crude drugs [37]

The raw materials must be authenticated, free of any extrinsic matter, should be collected and stored under hygienic conditions and in present times the care should be taken for it being free of any contaminants or residual pesticides.

Vessels for sneha [38]

Clean, sterilized and a high temperature bearing inert vessel should be used. The bottom of vessels should have an outside coating with wet soil or vajralepa to maintain a uniform temperature throughout the vessel. The darvi-spatula should be made of strong inert metal, long enough with a broad end for stirring.

Three main constituents [39]

Ayurvedic lipid-based products have three main constituent groups.

Sneha dravya–functional lipid based substances

These lipid substances, mostly ghee [clarified butter] or taila [oil] acting as a solvent medium for fat soluble active and water-soluble active portion gets entrapped to form a single phase without separation. The amount of lipid substance [snehadravya] utilized is four times to that of the kalka [grind paste], if not specified.

Kalka dravya-fresh wet grind paste

A fresh smooth wet grind paste of fresh plants or coarse dry powder with water is prepared. It is noteworthy that the proportion of the paste to the lipid substance is 1/4th for other parts of the herb and 1/8th for flowers, except flowers of Adhatodavasika, Bauhinia variegate and Terminalia chebula, it is 1/4th [40].

Drava dravya–liquid medium [41]

Different types of liquid substances used for the paste are selected in accordance with the herbs used for preparation of paste, the type of lipid material to be used and therapeutic indications. The proportion of paste to the liquid used varies as per nature of the liquid. Quantity of paste used for water is 1/4th of the lipid base used; for decoction it is 1/6thand for Milk, yoghurt, buttermilk and expressed juice it is 1/8th. The proportion of water, which is a universal medium, expressed juice, decoction and milk when used as liquid medium is 4 times of sneha (the lipid substance). If milk added with other liquids, cow’s urine and yoghurt is the same as that of sneha, the lipid base and for meat broth or sugarcane juice it is half of the lipid base [42]. More than one liquid is also used for Ghee or Taila preparations. For more than 5 types of liquids, the amount should be equal to that of the ghee or taila but for 5 or less the amount, equal quantity of each but total liquid used should be 4 times more than the amount of ghee or tailaor other lipid base substance [43, 44]. Specific Liquid media used in preparation of different ghee and oil based formulations are listed in table 2.

Table 2: Liquid media used in different ghee and oil-based formulations

Liquid Medium Formulations
Ghee formulations Taila formulations
Castor oil --- Pinda [45]
Cow’s milk Pippalyadi [46], Phala [47] Narayana [48], Baladi [49], Yashtimadhu [50], Chandanbalalakshadi [51]
Cow’s urine Hingusauvarchaladi [52] Marichyadi [53], Dhatura [54]
Decoction Panchatikta [55] Erimedadi [56]
Expressed juice Mahapanchatikta [57], Triphala [58] Bhringaraja [59]
Laksha Rasa --- Chandanadi [60]
Mamsarasa(Meat broth) Maayur [61] Mashadi [62]
Mustard oil --- Arka [63], Kshra [64], kiratadi [65]
Sheep’s milk --- Bilva [66]
Snuhiksheer/Arkaksheer (Latex distillate) Shadabindu [67] Kassisadi [68], Vajri [69]
Sour gruel --- Angaraka [70], Prasarani [71]
Sugarcane juice Kamadev [72]
Water Paneeyakalyanaka [73] ---
Yoghurt Changeri [74] Prasarani [75]

Preparation of the principal components

Preparation of sneha kashaya (Decoction)

For preparing a decoction, usually 4 times water is taken and reduced up to 1/4th. Acharya Dalhanamentions the use of 8 times water which is reduced up to 1/4th for lipid-based dosage forms. Another classic mention that the raw material should be taken doubles the amount of oleaginous material by adding 8 times water and reducing it to¼th. Acharya Sushruta suggests that for 1 Tula (4800 gm) of raw drug 1 Drona (13468 ml) of water has to be added or vice a versa [76]. The quantity of water depends upon the nature of the drug used i.e., 4 times for soft parts (mrudu), 8 times for hard parts (Madhyama) and 16 times for very hard (Atikathina) which is also reduced up to ¼thof the quantity [77]. Similarly the quantity of water also depends upon the quantity of decoctiondrugi.e., 16 times water for 1 Karsha to 1 Pala [10 grams to 40 grams] and 1 Prastha [640 grams] to 1 Tula [4800 grams] and 8 times for 1 pala to 1 Kudava [40 grams to 192 grams] which is reduced to ¼thof the quantity [78].

General ratio for sneha paka [79]

If not specified, quantity of the fresh wet grind, oleaginous material and liquid medium to be taken in the proportion of 1:4:16. The ratio of kalka, sneha and dravadravya mentioned in different classics isillustrated in table 3.

Table 3: General and specific ratios of fresh wet grind, lipid material and liquid media [80]

Ratio Paste Lipid material Liquid media
General 1/4th Part 1 Part 4 Parts
Specific 1/4th Part 1 Part 4 parts Water
1/6th Part 1 Part 4 parts Kwatha [decoction]
1/8th Part 1 Part 4 parts swarasa [Juice], mansarasa [meat juice], dadhi [yogurt], ksheera [Milk], takra [Butter Milk]
1/4th Part 1 Part Up to four dravya, 4 Part
1/4th Part 1 Part More than four, all equal to sneha

Sneha Kalpana (Main pharmaceutical process)

The process has been divided in two phases i.e., Snehamurcchana and Snehapaka.

Sneha murcchana (detoxification or exhilarate and penetrate or to enhance) [fortification of oleaginous base]

The oleaginous material (ghee or oil) is subjected to the process of Murcchana prior to the main process.

Importance of sneha murcchana

The process of Murcchana has been described first time in the text Bhaishajya Ratnavali [81]. This procedure helps to enhance the potency of oleaginous material and makes it more suitable to extract and assimilate the vital constituents from the medicaments. It also helps to remove amadosha (Unrefined-elimination of ‘Ama’ can be compared as the moisture content) and eliminate the odor there by imparting good smell to the finished product. It is apparent from the study that Murcchana alters the solubility pattern and absorbability which helps to improve the medicinal value of the finished product. Murchhana helps in maintaining the necessary ratio of unsaturated and saturated fats suitable for human physiology [82].

In case of oil, this process is referred as refinement of oil and is aimed at removalof free fatty acids, phosphatides, undesirable color, moisture and solids from crude oil. Hence it alters the physical as well as chemical characteristics of the oil base.

Ghrut/Tila taila murcchana [83, 84]

The process of detoxification of ghee/oil is described in table 4.

Table 4: Drugs used in murcchana process

Oleaginous material Paste Liquid medium
Cow’s ghee-1 part-1 prasth-768 ml. 1/16 part of each-Haritaki (Terminalia chebula), Bibhitaki (Terminalia belerica), Amalaki (Emblica officinalis), Musta (Cyperus rotundus), Haridra (Curcuma longa) fresh juice of Matulunga (Citrus medica) Water-4 parts

Tila Taila [76] 1 Part

Sesame oil

1/16th Part Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia)

1/64 part each of Haridra (Curcuma longa), Lodhra (Symplocosracemosa), Musta (Cyperus rotundus), Nalika (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), Amalaki (Emblica officinalis), Haritaki (Terminalia chebula), Bibhitaki (Terminalia belerica), Ketaki pushpa (screw pine flowers), Vatankura (Ficus benghalensis), Hrivera (Coleus zeylanicus).

 Water-4 parts

Eranda tail

Castor oil

1 prasth-768 ml.

1 shan-3 gram each

Manjishta [Rubia cordifolia], Musta [Cyperus rotundus] Shunthi [zingiber officinalis,] Dhanyaka [Coriandrum sativum], Amalaki [Emblica officinalis], Haritaki [Terminalia chebula], Bibhitaki [Terminalia bellerica], Kharjur [Pheonix sylvestris], Vatankura [Ficus bengelensis], Haridra [Curcuma longa], Daruharidra [Berberis arista], Nalika [Cinnamomum zeylanicum], Ketaki [Pandanus tectorus]

 Dadhikanji-fermented gruel 2 prastha-3.072 ml. water-4 parts

Sarshapataila

[Brassica compestris] oil-1 prasth-768 ml.

 1 karsha-12 gram each-Amalaki [Emblica officinalis], Haridra [Curcuma longa], Musta [Cyperus rotundus], Bilva [Aegle marmelos], Dadima [Punica granatum], [Nagkeshara] [Mesua ferrea], Krishna jeeraka [Carum carvi] Ushira [Vetiveria zizanioides], Nalika [Cinnamomum zeylanicum], Bibhitaki [Terminalia chebula]. 12 pala-96 gram-Manjishta [Rubia cordifolia] Water-1 Adhak-3.75 L.

Process

Cow’s ghee or Sesame/Castor/Mustard oil is heated on low temperature and cooled down on its own. Paste of the above-mentioned drugs followed by water is added to the ghee/oil. The ghee/oil is then heated on mild flame till appearance of siddhi lakshana of madhyamapaka (signs of completion or desired attributes). This refined ghee/oil is then filtered and stored in an air tight container. Also contribution of drugs used for detoxification is summerised in table 5.

Main process

General method [87]

After completion of murchhana, snehapaka process is performed with desired drug. For preparation of any medicated ghee or oil, 1 part of fresh wet grind, 4 parts of ghee/oil [murcchit] and 16 parts of liquid media are mixed together and subjected to moderate heating till the liquid portion gets evaporated. Before processing of sneha (lipid material) care should be taken to ensure that, the oil/ghee used are pure, clear and without slurry. Fortified old ghee and refined new oil should be used for formulation. The process is followed by filtration and the formulation is stored in an airtight container for further medicinal uses.

Duration of Snehpak in different media

The process is not usually completed within a day. Intermittent heating is provided for specific duration depending upon the nature of the liquids added to the material. Longer duration of preparation results in to enhanced properties and extraction of active constituents. Significance ofspecific duration for heating process is briefed in table 6

Table 5: Contribution of the drugs used for detoxification with chemical composition [85, 86]

Name and latin name of the drug Chemical constituents Contribution with Murcchana
Amalaki (Emblica officinalis) Vit-E, essential oil Phosphatides Increase acid value, solubility of drugs
Bibhitaki (Terminalia bellerica) Tannin, gallic acid, alleagic acid Increase solubility of active principles
Bilva [Aegle marmelos], Furocoumarins, xanthotoxol, methyl ester of alloimperatorin, flavonoids, rutin, marmesin; essential oils Imparts aroma
Dadima [Punica granatum] Alkaloids, Pelletierine, isopelletierine Colorant, antiviral, antifungal
Daruharidra [Berberis arista], Berberine, carbohydrates, organic acids, polyphenolic compounds, pectin, tannin, mineral elements Colorant and antifungal
Dhanyaka [Coriandrum sativum] Volatile oil, consisting mainly of delta-linalool, alpha-pinene terpinin, Flavonoids, coumarins, phthalides phenolic Increase acid value decreasing of the rancidity factors
Haridra (Curcuma longa) Alkaloid Curcumin, essential oil. Colorant and antifungal
Haritaki (Terminalia chebula) Tannin, Chebulic acid Increase solubility of active principles, anti-lipid peroxidation, anti-superoxide radical formation and free radical scavenging activities
Hrivera (Valeriana hardwickii) Vitamin E, glycosides, Essential oils Imparts aroma
Ketaki (Pandanus odoratisimu)

Essential oil-methyl

Ether, Benzyl benzoate and Aldehydes

 Imparts aroma
Kharjur [Pheonix sylvestris] Phenolics, sterols, carotenoids, anthocyanins, procyanidins, flavonoids Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities
Krishna jeeraka [Carumcarvi] Essential oils, Carvone, limonene Increase acid value, antimicrobial, bio enhancer
Lodhra (Symplocos racemosa) Alkaloid loturineandcolloturine Imparts aroma, suppressive effect on lipid per-oxidation
Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia) Coloring matter purpurence, xanthine Alizarine (orange red) Colorant, inhibit lipid per oxidation antioxidant property
Matulunga (Citrus medica) Volatile oil, Limone, dipentene, citral oil from peel, glycosides Increase acid value and Solubility of drug
Musta (Cyperus rotundus) Unstable alkaloids and Essential oils Increase the acid value And imparts aroma
Nagkeshara [Mesua ferrea] Essential oil, fatty acids Oleo-resin Mesuol, Mesuaxanthofle A and B, Mammeisin Imparts aroma, digestant, anti poisonous
Nalika (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) Essential oils, cinnamic Aldehyde Increase acid value and Imparts aroma
Shunthi [zingiber officinalis,] Carbohydrates, lipids, terpenes, phenolic compounds Increase acid value
Ushira [Vetiveri azizanioides] Essential oil mainly consisting of sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpenols Imparts aroma, antibacterial
Vata (Ficus bengalensis) Carbohydrates, flavonoids, amino acids/proteins, steroids, saponins and Tannins Imparts aroma

Fig. 1: Flow chart for process of the preparation of ayurvedic lipid base dosage form

Table 6: Liquid medium and duration of heat [88, 89]

Liquid media Duration Reason
Mamsa Rasa [meat broth], Vrihi Dhanya [Rice with husk] 1 night Easily get fetid and impart bad odor within a day due to biodegradation
Ksheer [milk] 2 nights Spoiled within a day or two.
Swarasa [juices] 3 nights It may take longer time period to absorb active principles in to the oleaginous media
Kwatha [decoction], Arnal [gruel], Takra [buttermilk] 5 nights Chemical constituents may take a longer time to absorb
Kwatha of Valli [Creepers], Mula [Roots] 12 nights Dried and hard substances, may take as much as longer period to absorb their therapeutically potent principles to the oleaginous media

Sneha siddhi lakshana: (Signs of optimization) [90, 91]

Types of snehpaka and therapeutic uses of different sneha paka

Different types of snehapaks mentioned aremainly divided into three stages (paka), (refer table 7) the most important ones are [92]

The amapaka (under heated) and dagdhapaka (over heated) ghrita or taila does not have any therapeutic value [93]. Therapeutic uses of snehapaka at different stages of paka are well illustrated in table 7.

Patra paka or gandha paka (Flavoring) [97]

Flavouring process for oils is termed as Patra Paka or Gandha Paka where in the paste prepared with aromatic material e. g., Kasturi (musk) is placed in a vessel of warm oil that imparts the aroma to the oil.

Table 7: Therapeutic uses of different snehapaka [94-96]

Stages of paka Kalka Sneha Therapeutic uses
Amapaka Water content (+), cracking sound Water content (+), cracking sound No therapeutic use
Mridupaka Sticky, traces of water (+), cracking sound Traces of water (+), cracking sound Pana (internal) Nasya [nasal application]
Madhyampaka Non‑sticky, free from water content, no cracking sound, varti can be made. Water content (‑), cracking sound (‑), froth appearance (taila), subsidization of froth (ghrita), desired colour, odour, and taste

All purposes

Nasya (nasal), Abhyanga, (massage), Pana, Basti (enema), Pana [ internal use]
Kharapaka Kalka become hard, rough, darkened, water‑free and dry Colour, odour, and taste may change. External application
Dagdhapaka Rough, dry, and black often charred burnt Essential contents of Sneha particularly loss of color, odor, and taste No therapeutic use

Aditya paka [98]

The heating process that utilizes photo energy to extract the active principles from the heat sensitive drugs under controlled low temperature. The drugs are mixed with oleaginous material and exposed to mild sunlight for specific time. e. g., Aditya Paki Guduchi Taila, Kasisadhya Ghrita.

Sneha avartana (Potentiation)

The term Avartana (repetition of process) was used for the first time in a southern text called Sahastrayogam. The potentiation of lipid-based dosage forms helps to minimize the dose and facilitates faster drug delivery. Medicated oil or ghee cannot be administered in large doses for longer duration. In this process the prescribed quantity of ingredients (paste and liquid medium) is added and the heating process is carried out repeatedly till the signs of optimization and desired potency is acquired. Dashpak (10 times), Shatapaki (100 times), Sahasrapaki (1000 times) denotes the number of times the process is carried out. Though there is a loss in oleaginous material but at the same time there is an increase in concentration of medicament.

Procedure of avartana (Potentiation) [99]

The initial ingredients with the same quantity are added to the medicated oil or Ghrita which is heated, cooked and filtered. The filtrate obtained is the first Avartana. For successive potentiation the first avartitsneha and other ingredients are added in prescribed ratio and heated, cooked and filtered. This filtrate is the second Avartit Sneha. The same process is repeated to carry out further potentiation of oil or ghee. Madhyama paka is employed to avoid the loss of medicinal properties. These avartitasnehas are used for oral or nasal administration.

Benefits and shortcoming of Avartana

The process helps to minimize the dose due to high potency, enhances the absorption of the drug, helps in easy administration and packaging of the formulation, but at the same time it increases cost and the time required for the preparation because the formulation needs to be prepared cautiously to avoid the loss of oleaginous material.

Precautions during the process [100]

Following precautions should be taken during the process-

Siddhi lakshan [signs of optimization] of snehapaka denotes completion of sneha formulations, having total attributes.

Storage [103]

The snehapaka should be stored in a dry glass, polythene or aluminum container. Container should be free from moisture. Perfuming drugs should be added gently in the container with stirring when the oil is lukewarm.

Matra (Dose)

The standard dose is 1 pala (48 gm) [104]. The prescribed dose varies as per the dosha, age, disease state, time and weather. Acharya Chakrapani mentions uttammatra [optimum dose] (1 pala-48 gm), madhyamamatra [medium dose] (3 karsh-3 gm) and hinamatra [lower dose] (1/2 pala-24 gm).

Anupana (Vehicle) [105]

Though the warm water is universal vehicle there are specific vehicles suggested to enhance the therapeutic activity of different types of fat e. g., ghee with warm water, oil with yush (medicated soup of pulses) and vasa majjawith manda(filtered liquid portion obtained after boiling 1 part of rice with 14 parts of water).

Prayogkala (Time of administration) [106]

The right time of administration for the medicated oil is Pravrit Ritu (before monsoon), for ghee is Sharada Ritu (autumn) and for rendered animal fat and bone marrow is Vasanta Ritu (spring). Though if required these could be administered in any season. For shamana (palliative therapy), oil/ghee is given on empty stomach (abhaktak) to maximize therapeutic efficacy.

Route of administration

Pana (oral), anuvasana (anal), abhyanga (external), shirobasti (anoint), uttarbasti (urethral/vaginal), nasya (nasal), karnapurana (aural) are various modes of administration for different lipid-based formulations [107].

Shelf life

The shelf life of medicated oil or ghee is 4 mo but Vangasenamentions the shelf life of pakvaghritaas one year and for pakvaand apakvatailait is more than a year. According to AFI, shelf life of these formulations can extend up to16 mo [103, 108].

Modifications in sneha kalpana [109, 110]

The newer methods of preparations and modifications have been developed for Sneha kalpanaas described in table 8.

Expected failures in the preparation of snehakalpana

Disagreeable product may be seen in some of the oil or ghee preparation, which may be due to change in the temperature, types of drugs used or by reaction with the containers.

Causes and Solutions to overcome these failures are recorded in table 9.

Table 8: Modifications in Sneha Kalpana

Modifications Merit/demerit
Soft gelatin capsules-Oral dosage form

Merits-preserve for long time (Ghrit–extended 4 mo to 1 y), Easy to palatable, Easy for dispensing, Good appearance

Demerit-Cost value increases due to modification
Basti sachet–Rectal use
Sukshmikarana of snehakalpana [Fineness]

Table 9: Expected failures in the preparation-Causes and solutions

Reasons Solutions
Size of vessel Wide mouth, suitable size vessel depending on the quantity and nature of batch
Lipids and other ingredients

The lipids i.e., Ghee/oil must be

  • Pure, clear and without slurry.

  • To be taken after doing Murcchana Samskara.

  • The necessary ingredients should be of good quality.
Water or other liquid-if quantity of water or prescribed liquids is not taken as per the guidelines, they may hamper the manufacturing process. Water should be soft and taken as per ratio mentioned. If water is hard in nature the desire residue may not be obtained. Other liquids like decoction, juices, meat juice, infusions should be prepared as per given guide lines.
Temperature-if temperature is not maintained properly there are chances that can decompose some of the thermo-labile active constituents. With extra heat given sneha becomes kharpaka or dagdhapaka Mild to moderate heat [85-90 °C of temperature] throughout the process should be maintained.
Storage container Should be moisture free

Therapeutic significance of snehakalpana

Ayurvedic texts mention various ailments in which medicated ghee and oils are administered for applications on the body, with or without massage for providing health benefits and to treat specific indications. Although most of the medicated oils are for external usage, certain types of medicated oils are administered orally also. However, medicated ghrita of Ayurveda are used systemically orally. The therapeutic significance of ghrita and taila are different. Oil is considered as the best pacifying drug for vata-predominant conditions, such as Vatavyadhi [Vata disorders], Vatashonita [Gout], Moodhagarbha [foetus astray/Obstruction in Labour], Karnagataroga [Ear diseases], Vandhyatwa [Infertility], Yonivyapat [disorders of the female genital tract] Gandamala [Lymphadenopathy], Granthi (Cystic Swellings), Apachi (Suppurating Lymphadenitis), Arbuda (Tumours), Vidradhi [Abscess ]. These are the conditions where the prime vitiated entity is vata dosha. Ghrita is prominently used for rejuvenation purposes and medhayushkamiyarasayana [enhance intellect and longevity] in Classical texts. 

DISCUSSION

Medicated ghee

Ghee is one of the most popular traditional dairy products in India. The importance of ghee in Indian diets has been recognized from the prehistoric days because of its high nutritive value, pleasant aroma, and textural properties. Approximately one-third of the total milk produced in India is used for making ghee and ghee prepared by rural milk producers constitutes about 80% of the total sales in the market. The organized dairies contribute about 20% of the consumer’s needs of ghee. There are five methods of ghee making such as Desi or Indigenous Method, Direct Cream Method, Creamery Butter Method, Prestratification Method and Continuous Method. The principle involved in ghee preparation include; the concentration of milk fat in the form of cream or butter, heat clarification of fat rich milk portion and thus reducing the amount of water to less than 0.5%, removal of the curd content in the form of ghee residue [111].

Cow ghee is the most preferred base for preparing any medicine because it can reach the deepest of tissues in the human body and nourish it, improves the absorption ability of the small intestines and decreases the acidic pH of the gastrointestinal tract. Ghee is a rich source of Omega-3 fatty acids, a natural antioxidant and prevents degenerative changes in musculoskeletal system, prevents premature ageing.

Medicated oil

Normally crude sesame oil is used as snehadravya, though occasionally castor oil and coconut oil is also used either in parts or in full. Sesame oil contains polyunsaturated fat-omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids help prevent several diseases, including heart disease, cancerand help improve immune function. Sesame oil has known anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, enhance life, complexion, strength and anabolism of body. It has a high smoke point, which makes it good for high-heat cooking like stir-frying.

Therapeutic benefits

Medicated ghee/oil is used for various external and internal applications. Internal applications of medicated ghee/oil include oral ingestion and an Ayurvedic treatment called panchakarma. Proper digestion, absorption, and delivery to a target organ system are vitally important for obtaining the maximum benefit from any therapeutic formulation. The lipophilic action of ghee/oil facilitates transportation to the target organ and final delivery inside the cell via the cell membrane, which also contains lipid. A research study compared different forms of herbs and herbal extracts and found that ghee/oil improved the efficacy of the formulation compared to usage in powder or tablet form [112]. Lipid-based formulations play a significant role in oral delivery of lipophilic drugs. Scientific findings suggest the presence of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), butyric acid, sphingomyelin, myristic acid, and vitamin A in ghee, which has functional properties and has potential to inhibit different degenerative disease. When ghee was used as the sole source of fat at a 10% level, there was a large increase in oleic acid levels and a large decrease in arachidonic acid levels in serum lipids [113]. Previous studies have shown that natural sesame oil promotes the intestinal lymphatic transport and oral bioavailability of the highly lipophilic drug cannabidiol (CBD) [114].

Sneha kalpana may be defined as a process where compounds like ghee/oil, fresh wet grind, liquid media, and aromatic liquids are employed for the preparation of oleaginous medicaments. Lipid or water-soluble active principles of drugs are extracted into ghee or oil in this method. The formulations should be prepared under medium temperature. Confirmation of the stages during the process is important with respect to its therapeutic use. Medicated ghee or oils are potent and have better shelf life compared to non-medicated. The heat assimilates more amount of constituents and increases the concentration leading to increasing bioavailability. The extraction of wide range of simple to complex chemical constituents is possible via this process. For example, with respect to absorption, passive transport depends on the concentration gradient. The drug given as a concentrated solution is absorbed faster than the diluted solution. Secondly, only lipid-soluble drugs can penetrate the blood-CSF barrier; the non-lipid-soluble drugs entry is prohibited because of tight junctions in the capillary endothelium.

Liposomes

In the field of novel drug delivery systems, liposome is one of the advanced dosage forms in which nanoparticles comprising lipid bilayer membranes surrounding an aqueous interior are formed. The amphiphilic molecules used for the preparation of these compounds have similarities with biological membranes and have been used for improving the efficacy and safety of different drugs. In this dosage form, the active compound can be loaded either in the aqueous spaces, if it is water-soluble, or in lipid membrane, if it is lipid soluble [115, 116].

The fundamentals of sneha kalpana/paka of Ayurved and liposomes as advanced drug delivery vehicle have similarity with respect to their origin and character as both are lipoidal in nature. In the preparation of snehapaka, the principle is to transfer active constituents of herbs in lipid and water according to its solubility by application of heat [117].

CONCLUSION

Sneha Kalpana–lipid-based dosage forms havea unique place in Ayurvedic pharmacopeia owing to its oleaginous nature. The review comprehensively details classical and pharmaceutical information including processing techniques that are used and their significance. It also gives an insight into the significance of these traditional forms that could be related to advances in liposomal activities. These forms have promising possibilities for promotive-nutritional and curative-medicinal purposes to treat variety of illnesses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We acknowledge the textual and technical support provided by Dr. Vandana Kozarekar.

FUNDING

Nil

AUTHORS CONTRIBUTIONS

All the authors have contributed equally.

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

Declared none

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