Int J Pharm Pharm Sci, Vol 8, Issue 10, 21-31Review Article


REVIEW: FROM SCREENING TO APPLICATION OF MOROCCAN DYEING PLANTS: CHEMICAL GROUPS AND BOTANICAL DISTRIBUTION

IMANE ALOUANI, MOHAMMED OULAD BOUYAHYA IDRISSI, MUSTAPHA DRAOUI, MUSTAPHA BOUATIA

Laboratory of Analytical Chemestry, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Mohammed V University in Rabat
Email: imane.alouani@itech.fr

Received: 19 May 2016 Revised and Accepted: 12 Aug 2016

ABSTRACT

Many dyes are contained in plants and are used for coloring a medium. They are characterized by their content of dyes molecules. They stimulate interest because they are part of a sustainable development approach. There are several chemicals families of plant dye which are contained in more than 450 plants known around the world. In this article, a study based on literature allowed us to realize an inventory of the main dyes plants potentially present in Morocco. A list of 117 plants was established specifying their botanical families, chemical Composition, Colors and parts of the plant used.

Keywords: Natural dye, Morocco, Chemical structures, Plant pigments, Extraction

© 2016 The Authors. Published by Innovare Academic Sciences Pvt Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4. 0/)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22159/ijpps.2016v8i10.12960

INTRODUCTION

Several hundred species of plants are used around the world, sometimes for thousands of years for their ability to stain a medium or material[1]. The demand for natural colors in the world is around 10 000 tons, equivalent to 1% of the world consumption of synthetic dye [2]. The interest for natural products is experiencing a major craze in this sense that we undertake the study of vegetable dyes.

These plants produce substances, which filter photons, absorb part of the light and reflect the rest of the light spectrum in variable wavelength [3]. A dye plant is a plant able to produce by biosynthesize soluble dyes molecules "dyes" or insoluble compounds "Pigments/lacquers"[4]. These compounds are extracted and used for dyeing various materials, manufacturing colored food, cosmetics, inks or paints [5]. The dye molecules are either contained in the leaves (Indigo), flowers (Saffron), fruits (Walnut stain) or seeds (Annatto), roots (Curcuma), wood (logwood), or the sap (Dragon) [6-8].

In Morocco, some dye plants represent our customs and traditions worldwide. Such as Henna (Lawsonia inermis)[6], which is used to color the skin and hair. Or Saffron (Crocus sativus)[6], which in addition to its unique taste, is used to color foods.

But the most representative example of using dye plants in Morocco is "traditional tanneries of Fez Chouara" that treat and colors the skins of animals. The dyeing is done in a traditional tank with only natural dyes mostly extracted from plants such as: Papaver rhoeas or red poppy for the Red hue, Indigofera tinctoria SP gives the Blue tint, Lawsonia inermis L. for its Orange dye, or Mentha for the green.

Since its discovery in the 18th century by W. H. Perkin [9, 10], the synthetical dye replaced all the natural dyes. The reason is that the natural dyes are very expensive and rare but mainly difficult to use, with bad properties such as fastness to light and low vividness [11]. But the interest in natural dyes takes a new breath. And more specifically the dye plants that contain the most important natural dye with a large range compared to the animals and minerals [5].

In addition to presenting many advantages such as a high diversity and complexity of nuances [7], the use of vegetable dyes mainly falls within a sustainable development approach. They are known to be less toxic, less polluting, safer, non-carcinogenic and non-poisoning [5]. They are also biodegradable and compatible with the environment [12].

In this article, we process methods of extraction and analysis, applications, and different families of natural dyes. Finally, we give examples of dye plants and their chemical compositions and propose a non-exhaustive list of existing dye plants in Morocco could be used for various applications.

For this review, we have grouped a large number of information concerning dye plants. The studies were initially focused on the historical data through works relating the history and evolution of their use since the Stone Age like a wall painting art to more modern use as Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSCC). To make a complete and wide inventory of dye plants existing in the world, we were interested in the studies in the various domains of use: textile, pharmaceutical, DSSC, cosmetic or other.

The most used keywords are Dyes, Naturals dyes, Dyeing plants pigments, the Plant pigments, or the botanical name of the plant. Data chosen at this stage was only from the scientific article, scientific work or a botanical association: a collection of dye plants of the city of Namur. A database of 311 plants was created containing the following data. As regards the list of the Moroccan plants, it was obtained by crossing a large number of ethnobotanical studies in Morocco with our database. The result is a not exhaustive list of 117 dye plants, which are present in Morocco.

Preparation of natural dyes from plants: parameters and methods

Getting a vegetable dye from plants is by extraction. This is the method by which the active ingredient is removed from the plant after treatment with a specific solvent or solvent mixture. A natural dye is usually prepared by boiling the ground powder in a solvent, or a solvent mixture. But sometimes it is left to macerate in cold water. Vegetable dye is extracted by several methods, which may be very simple (decoction of the plant) or extremely complex and long (soaking, fermenting, drying, etching through metal salts) [5, 13].

Several parameters have an important role in the extraction of coloring principle and can change the Colors obtained significantly:

The extraction is a process that includes transferred masses since the dye molecule is bound to the cell membrane of the plant, which can be a problem. The extraction mechanism is as follows: the disruption of the cell wall; the release of the dye molecule; and the migration to the external environment. New technologies allow for improvement.

However, is required maintain the intact molecule to use it. Table 1 contains some example of some extraction methods [2]. These technologies include the use of ultrasound for excellent returns. Ultrasonic wave’s properties, essentially cavitation are applied for years in the plant matrices to improve the classical extraction methods. Its use is experiencing a significant increase either in the laboratory or in the industry since it reduces the processing time with yield increasingly important active ingredients. The effectiveness of ultrasound is now applied to the extraction of colors, flavors, polyphenols, as well as many pharmacological substances [2, 15].

Use natural dyes of plant origin

A dye is a substance that can be used to impart color to other materials such as textiles, papers, and foodstuffs [5]. Natural dyes are used nowadays in many areas from the most traditional to the most innovative: textile industry, the pharmaceutical industry, cosmetic industry, confectionery, food colors, and stationery as a diagnostic agent or as an antibacterial in many products.

Thanks to their nature environmentally friendly, vegetable dyes open the field to several uses especially for applications that require non-toxic products [2].

Table 1: A literature review of some extraction methods

Plant name Part used Drying/soaking Mass/solvent Extraction Concentration References
Eucalyptus Leaves Drying: under the sun for 1 mo 70g/1l water Heating for 1h After filtration, the solution is to boil until evaporated [16]

Caesalpinia sappan L.

Gardenia jasminoides

Rhizoma coptidis

Areca Catechu

 Bark Soaking: 24h in distilled water 150g/800 ml water Boiling 800 ml to 100 ml by evaporation twice consecutively Filtration and condensation 50 ml [12]
Rubia Tinctorium Roots Drying: oven at 80 ° C and milled every 2 h until stabilization of the mass 10 mg/2 ml Methanol-water (8: 2, v/v) Ultrasound for 10 min Removal of the supernatant after centrifugation [15]
Rubia Tinctorium Roots Drying: oven at 80 ° C and milled every 2 h until stabilization of the mass 6g/150 ml Methanol-water (8: 2, v/v) Extraction reflux and stirring for 1H Filtration [15]
Rhamnus Berries Drying: and crushed 25 mg/3 ml Methanol-water (v/v) Ultrasound for 10 min Removal of the supernatant after centrifugation [15]
Harungana madagascariensis Bark Drying: oven at 50 °C 247g/3,7 kg water Boil 5 min, then cool for 2 h shaking Filtration and rotary evaporator [14]

Allium cepa

Apium graveolens

 Seeds Drying: oven at 60 °C and crushed 1g/10 ml ethanol Soak for 24 h and filter Reduced below 60 ° C [17]

Table 2: Classifications of natural dyes by Codex Alimentarius [3, 27, 28]

Color Source plant N ° CE Common name Color Index Some food uses
Yellow Roots of Curcuma Longa L. E100 Curcumine 75300 Curry, green mustards, soups, syrups, Salam, dairy products.
Yellow to red Variable

Starting strain of edible carrots, vegetable oils, grass, lucerne and nettle.

Annatto

Paprika

E160a(i)

E160b

E160c

A: mixed carotenoids

B: Rocou, Bixine, Norbixine

C: Paprika extract, Capsanthine, Capsorubine

75130

75120

-

 Drinks, liqueurs, syrups, soups, condiments, ice cream.
Green Starting edible herb strain, alfalfa and nettle E140

Chlorophylle (i)

NB: le ii (75815) Synthetic is developed from natural

 75810 Green vegetables and fruit to be stored in a liquid, dairy products, delicatessen products and envelope products.
Black Carbo medicinalis vegetalis  E153 Vegetable carbon - Deli meats and envelopes, and caviar substitutes, confectionery, candied fruit, desserts, syrups.

In textile and leather industries, the vegetable dyes are the best known and most used for thousands of years as evidenced by archaeological discoveries in Egypt which confirms the use of plants such as Henne, Safran and Curcuma [18]. They are still present in this area. There are many types of plants such as Gaude, Pastel or Indigo, which are used for dyeing various textile materials: Cotton, wool or silk [7, 8, 11, 19-23].

However, vegetable dyes, although it is renewable and biodegradable sources, can cause over-exploitation of natural resources and lead to deforestation. For this reason, the Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) allowed the use of synthetic dyes and banned the use of endangered plants [13].

The usual and known application of dye plants is the food industry. In recent decades, the consumption of natural dyes is increasingly important. Especially in preserves, confectionery, beverages, but also in the deli, butterfat (oil, butter, cheese, and sugar) [3]. The use of these dyes is strictly regulated internationally by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the World Health Organization (WHO), or European level according to a strict protocol: CODEX ALIMENTARIUS that includes a large number of establishments. The principle of "positive list" is applied to all food colors, which means that what is not allowed is tacitly prohibited. They are provided with a code number preceded by the letter E1XX which x represents a number as shown in table 2 [3, 24-26].

In the pharmacological field, the majority of dye plants have medicinal properties. In addition to their nontoxic character, natural dyes are excellent candidates for many applications in the production of drugs. They are used to Coloring gelatin capsules shells, as well as the process for coating tablets and pills [5].

The cosmetic is also characterized by the use of vegetable dyes and this since ancient times. Henna is the best-known plant in the world for its ability to color the hair, skin and even nails. But this is not the only one since natural dyes are used for makeup (Eyeshades, red lipstick.), for care, toothpaste mouthwashes, and several other` 1`r applications [5, 29-31].

DSSC (Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell) or Grätzel cell is a photo-electrochemical system based on plant photosynthesis, which exposed to light, produces electricity. Several interesting tracks including natural dyes were explored: the molecules of the group tannins, anthocyanins, carotenoids or chalone and many other compounds sometimes extracted from plant seeds answered as celery or onion. Natural dyes are a less expensive alternative, faster, environmentally friendly and low energy consumption for photosensitive pigment cell (DSSC) compared to the ruthenium complex [17, 21, 32].

Another use is possible for natural dyes: In histology (bone coloring, nuclear staining) for diagnostic deficiencies kidney or liver and even other body tissues. Such as Inulin to make a diagnostic of the kidneys that are not metabolized by the body, or the Rose Bengal, which is used for the liver is to be disposed into 1 minute [5].

By coupling the antibacterial characteristics and its power dyes, natural dyes can be used to offer innovative products such as antibacterial textiles [21].

Characterization of dyes

The natural dyes from plants have the ability to color a solid or liquid substance [5]. Unlike the synthetic dyes, the color is obtained by a combination of molecules contained in the plant [1]. They are formed by atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and interconnected by single or double bonds forming an electrons flow over molecular orbital "Π".

Every molecule absorbs specific frequencies that are characteristics of their structures. When the molecules are excited, the energy produced is re-emitted as radiation in a wavelength, which determines the color. For example, if the radiation is in the visible area around 600 to 700 nm the color is red.

Principal chemical groups of a dye molecule

The coloring properties of an organic compound are determined by the chemical structure of the dye molecule. Most of them are unsaturated and aromatic organic molecules. As far as the chemistry of dyes is concerned, a dye molecule has three principal chemical groups: Auxochrome, Chromophore, and solubilizing group. They are represented in fig. 1 [5, 33].

The solubilizing group will improve the solubilizing ability of the dye molecule in various substances. This is the main estate of a dyestuff contrary to the pigments that are insoluble [3, 5, 33].

The auxochrome group corresponds to the OH groups, amine groups NH 2, COOH and SO3H group. These are the ionizable portions of the dye, which will allow the fixing of the dyestuff to the support. This characteristic is very important for dyeing fabrics but not really used in cosmetics or paint [3, 5, 33].

The chromophore group is responsible for the color. Once degraded, the molecule loses its coloring power. This optical property is resulting from the energy absorption in a range of the visible spectrum, while the other wavelengths are transmitted or diffused [3, 5, 33].

Fig. 1: Principal chemical groups: chromophore, auxochromes et solubilizing group [6]

Classification of natural dyes

The dyes can be classified according to several criteria: Depending on the chemical structure, and depending on the color [1]. In this article, we will focus only on the chemical composition of plants [1, 6, 13].

  1. Quinone dyes

These are aromatic diketones derived from the oxidation of the diphenol. They are divided into different groups according to their core as shown in the fig. 2: Benzoquinones: (unicycle); Naphthoquinones (bicyclic); Anthraquinones (tricyclic) [6].

These molecules represent three basic structures, which are met in Quinone dye. They are colorless themselves, but the more they are connected to a chemical substituent (in particular the hydroxyl radical OH) the more compounds are intensely colored [6].

Benzoquinones is a Quinone with a single benzene ring. Because of their simple structure, benzoquinones are highly unstable substances, which are rarely found in pure form in plants, especially in vascular plants.

Fig. 2: Chemical structures of Quinones: benzoquinones, Naphthoquinones and Anthraquinones [6]

Naphthoquinones, especially the p-(or 1.4)-naphthoquinones, which are found among the plants. The alkannin is the main dye in the Roots Alkanet and Yellow Alkanet; it exists in these plants as an angelic ester. The most known naphthoquinones is 2-Hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone known to Lawsone contained in henna (Lawsonia inermis) as shown in fig. 3 [6, 13].

Fig. 3: Chemical structures of Lawsone or 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphtoquinone [13]

Anthraquinones

There are several of these dyes in dyeing lichens and fungi, which are quite important in the plant kingdom [6]. They represent the largest group of red dye [3].

These compounds are characterized by good fastness to light and excellent fastness to washing in the presence of metallic mordant [1, 33].

  1. Flavonoids

Characterized by its yellow color, this type of dye has a particular behavior. When they are in an aqueous solution with low concentration, the most common flavonoids (flavones and flavonols), absorb light of wavelengths between 325 and 370 nm, so they seem colorless or very lightly colored.

In some natural environment, their absorption spectrum is shifted to superior wavelengths, making them appear yellow. The explanation for the appearance of color is attributed to the aggregation of several molecules of flavonoids when they are sufficiently concentrated in a solution and/or complex formation with metal ions [6].

The different groups of flavonoids are given in fig. 4. There is a difference of light stability among several groups of flavonoids. A determining factor appears to be the presence or absence of a hydroxyl group in position 3 in the dye molecule. The absence of this group, for example, the Luteolin, or when glycosylated the dyes have a relatively good light fastness. On the contrary, flavonols as aglycones, present a free OH group in 3, are degraded by light [6, 34].

  1. Carotenoïds

These are yellow dyes to orange-red. They are widespread in the plant kingdom where they give their Color both to the flowers (Coltsfoot, common marigold), to the fruits (tomato) and also the roots (carrot). Their names come from carotene isolated from the carrot in 1881 [1]. The color is due to the presence of longue conjugated double bond, the perfect example is Annatto and Saffron [1].

Fig. 4: Chemical structures of Flavonoids sort met in the vegetable kingdom [6]

There are different types of carotenoid:

Fig. 5: Structure of Bixin (R=CH3) and the Norbixin (R=H) [6]

In the saffron crocus, Crocetin is presented mostly as his di gentiobiose-ester, Crocin [6]. The different structures are given in fig. 6 and 7:

Fig. 6: Chemical structures of the Crocetin [6]


Fig. 7: Crocin structure [6]

They are soluble in oils. These are unsaturated compounds having a plurality of conjugated double bonds whose number influences the coloring. Highly oxidized, they are easily destroyed by light [1, 6].

  1. Tannins

Practically all plants contain tannins. Some of them are rich enough to be used as dyeing plants. They are not usually distributed in the plant and are extracted as a specific part [13], for example [6]:

The tannins are polyphenolic compounds that can be divided into two groups: hydrolyzable tannins and condensed tannins as shown in fig. 10 [6].

Tannins hydrolyzable: formerly called "tannins pyrogallic" are esters. Under the action of a dilute acid or an enzyme (tannase), they hydrolyze to release a phenolic acid and another compound (generally sugar). There are two main families [6]:

Gallotins are producing Gallic acid as shown in fig. 8 and Di-Gallic acid. In most structures, a central molecule is linked to several groups Gallolyl ester [6].

Fig. 8: Gallic acid [6]

Ellagitannins: their acid hydrolysis product of Ellagic acid as shown in fig. 9.

Fig. 9: Ellagic acid [6]

Tannins condensed are flavonoid derivatives. They are not decomposed by hydrolysis. On the contrary, heating in an acidic environment, they polymerize forming insoluble compounds. So it belongs to the category of pigments (they will not be discussed) [22].

Tannins are water-soluble. They produce coloration with iron salts and combine with proteins and certain polyols. They are more or less soluble in hydrophilic solvents (for example alcohol or ketone), but insoluble in hydrocarbons, oils, fats, and waxes. Aqueous solutions are colloidal. For the stability of aqueous solutions, it is not always good, especially in boiling water and in acidic milieu.

They are very soluble in alkaline solutions, in ammonia and gives brownish precipitated with potassium dichromate or chromic acid. They precipitate the salts of heavy metals (copper, iron, lead, zinc, etc.). They form precipitates or colloidal solutions of various colors with ferric salts (known as lacquer) [6].

Fig. 10: Tannins classification [6]

  1. Indigoids dye

This is perhaps the most important group of natural dyes, obtained from indigo plants. These involve a heteroside form of colorless Indoxyl from which the indigo dyes are biosynthesized [13].

Very few colored pale yellow tint; it is mainly present in the leaves. Indican is the first of these precursors have been identified Indigofera which is different from the one found in Reseda luteola or Isatis tinctoria L. (Isatan B) [6].

The color indigo is composed of several dye molecules produced from the Indoxyl. Indeed, whatever the glycoside present in the plant that will give precursor decomposition after enzymatic hydrolysis. Indoxyl provides several components after oxidation of Indigo: the Indigotine which is the main component as shown in fig. 11 (Color Index Natural Blue 1 No. 75780) [13]; Or Isatin which is generated in accordance with temperature; or the Indirubin violet dye isomer of indigo, obtained by condensation of Isatin under unknown factors (Color Index Natural Blue 1 No 75790) [6]. Fig.12 show the different ways to synthesis indigo dyes.

Fig. 11: Chemical structure of indigotin (Color Index Natural Blue 1 No. 75780) [13].

The natural indigo is the largest representative of the vat dye technology for textile dyeing. The Indigo compound is insoluble, so we have to make it soluble in an alkaline environment by reduction process that produces leucoindigo.

At the output of bath, under the action of ambient oxygen, the product turns indigo on the fiber and gives a blue color. This transformation as shown in fig. 13 is visible to the naked eye [6].

Fig. 12: Synthesis of indigo from Indican and Indoxyl [6]


Fig. 13: Reduction of indigo to soluble Leuco-indigo salt through acid leu co indigo and regeneration of the insoluble pigment by the ambient oxygen [6]

The dyeing plant in morocco

There are numbers of important dye plants producing several colors like red, yellow, blue, black or brown. These colors can be achieved using one or more plant parts either roots, leaves, flowers, wood, seeds. About 2000 pigments are obtained from plants and nearly 150 pigments were used. In India, there are around 450 plants are known for their dyeing characters [7].

In Morocco, several plants are used as a natural dye. But they are little known because the majority of dye plants are classified as Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and some of them have been identified having antibacterial activity. The most used are:

According to my literature research, there are no established screenings for dye plants in Morocco. Most of the scientific works are more interested in the MAP (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants). It was easier to find several ethnobotanical screening by regions of these plants. From this information and the database that I collected to come up with a non-exhaustive list of 117 dying plants, which emerge. They are distributed as follows in table 3:

Table 3: Botanical distribution of dye plants

Botanical family Repartition
Asteraceae (cf. table 4) 22
Fabaceae (cf. table 5) 9
Rosaceae (cf. table 7) 8
Fagaceae (cf. table 6) 7
Other Family (cf. table 8) 71

The database includes the following information: The botanical name, the chemical family, color and part used.

Table 4: Dye plants in morocco asteraceae family

Botanical nomenclature Color Chemical composition Parts used Réf.
Anthemis tinctoria Yellow, green, Kaki Flavonoids Heads flowers [4]
Artemisia abrotanum Yellow Flavonoids/Aurone Flowers and flowering branches [4, 36-38]
Artemisia vulgaris Yellow Flavonoids et tannins. Entire plant [4, 36, 37]
Bidens pilosa SP. Yellow Flavonoids Flowers and flowering branches [6, 39]
Calendula officinalis Yellow to orange Carotenoïds et Flavonoids Flowers [37, 38, 40, 41]
Calluna vulgaris Yellow to green Flavonoids et tannins. Flowering branches [4, 39]
Carthamus tinctorius Red

Quinochalcone

NY2 75130 et 75135; NY27: 75125; NR26: 75140 Carthamine

 Flowers [6, 34, 40, 41]
Centaurea cyanus Blue Anthocyanins/Cyanidine Flowers [4, 34, 37]
Cichorium intybus Brown, blue Anthocyanin Entire plant, Flowers [4, 34, 36, 37]
Conyza canadensis Yellow Flavonoids et en Tannins Flowers [4, 37]
Coreopsis SP. Yellow Flavonoids: Chalcones and Aurone Flowers and flowering branches [6, 37]
Cynara cardunculus Yellow Flavonoids Leaves [4, 37, 38, 42]
Cynara scolymus Yellow Flavonoids Leaves [4, 36, 38]
Eupatorium cannabinum Yellow *ND  Entire plant [4, 37]
Helianthus annuus Yellow Flavonoids Leaves [4, 34, 37, 41]
Inula helenium Yellow blue Inuline Roots and flowers [4, 36, 38, 43]
Matricaria recutita Yellow *ND  Aerial part of the plant [4, 37, 38, 44]
Scabiosa/knautia arvensis Green, blue, purple Rich in tannins: Dipsacan and after the oxidation dipsacotine Flowers [4, 39, 41, 45]
Solidago virgaurea Yellow

Tannins

Flavonoids

 Aerial parts of the plant [4, 6, 37]
Tanacetum vulgare Yellow to brown

Tannins

Flavonoids

 Flowers and leaves [4, 38]
Taraxacum sp. Yellow, magenta Flavonoids: Luteolin Roots and rhizomes [37, 38]
Tussilago farfara Yellow *ND  Roots and rhizomes [37]

* ND: not determined.

Table 5: Dye plants in Morocco of the Fabaceae family

Botanical nomenclature Color Chemical composition Parts used Réf.
Acacia dealbata Red to brown Tannins/proanthocyanidins. Bark [6, 46]
Acacia decurrens Brown Tannins/proanthocyanidins. Bark [2, 6, 46]
Acacia nilotica L. = Acacia arabica Red, brown and black Hydrolysable tannins and tannins Seed pods and bark [1, 5-7, 13, 39]R13/FEN v1
Acacia pycnantha Red to brown Tannins/proanthocyanidins. Bark [6, 46]
Cytisus scoparius Yellow to green

Flavonoids, Carotenoïds;

NY2,

75610: Genisteol, 75590: Luteolol

 Flowers and flowering branches [4, 6, 39]
Indigofera coerulea Blue Indigoïds: Indican Leaves [6, 39]
Ononis repens Yellow *ND  Flowering branches [4, 39]
Trifolium pratense Yellow to green Flavonoids Entire plant [4, 39, 47]
Trigonella foenum-graecum Red to brown Tannins et flavonoids Seeds [38, 39, 41, 42, 48-52]

* ND: not determined.

Table 6: Dyeing plant in morocco family Fagaceae

Botanical nomenclature Color Chemical composition Parts used Réf.
Castanea sativa Brown Tannins: NB6 gallotin acid. Bark [6, 39]
Quercus Beige to dark

Tannins/Quercitine and Flavine

NY10

75670 Quercetol;

75720 Quercitrons.

 Bark and leaves [6, 17, 39]
Quercus cerris L. Beige brown, grey to black Tannins Bark in the form of powder called TAN [6](R13)
Quercus coccifera L. Beige brown, grey to black Tannins Bark in the form of powder called TAN [6, 22, 38, 39, 51, 53]
Quercus iles L. Beige brown, grey to black Tannins Bark in the form of powder called TAN [6, 39]
Quercus robur Beige brown, grey to black Tannins Bark [4, 6, 36]
Ulex Parviflorus ND 

Flavones, Chalcones et carotenoïds.

Genistein, 7-O-glucoside of Genistein.

 Bark [6, 37]

* ND: not determined.

Table 7: Dye plants in morocco of the rosaceae family

Botanical nomenclature Color Chemical composition Parts used Ref.
Agrimonia eupatoria Yellow, green, brown Tannins Entire plant or leaves [4, 39]
Alchemilla vulgaris Light orange Tannins Entire plant [4, 39]
Malus domestica Yellow Flavonoids Bark [7, 34, 41]
Prunus amygdalus Green * ND  The shell of the kernel [36, 38, 42, 51]
Prunus padus Orange to brown, purple and grey. Anthocyanins Fruits, branches and bark. [4, 39]
Prunus spinosa Blue, Pink * ND  Fruits [4, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42]
Rosa damascena Mill *ND Carotenoids: Quercitin Flowers [40, 42, 43, 54]
Rubus fruticosus Purple and blue, gray Anthocyanins, tannins Leaves, branches, fruit, roots and rhizomes. [4, 34, 36, 38]

* ND: not determined.

Table 8: Dye plants in Morocco other botanical families

Botanical Family Botanical nomenclature Color Chemical composition Parts used Réf.
Adoxaceae Sambucus nigra Blue, purple, green Anthocyanins Leaves and berries [4, 44]
Amaranthaceae Beta vulgaris subsp. Vulgaris Red Betanine not listed. Roots [27, 28, 39]
Amaryllidaceae Allium cepa Yellow, green, orange Flavonoids, tannins, and anthocyanins. The onion skin [4, 17, 34, 36, 38, 43]
Anacardiaceae Pistacia terebinthus L. Yellow Anthocyanins, tannins: Myrisitine; Gallotanique acid Leaves and galls [39, 55]
Rhus [52] Pentaphylla Beige brown, grey to black Tannins: Gallotanins Myricetine Leaves [4, 13, 36, 39, 51, 52]
Apiaceae Anthriscus sylvestris Yellow Flavonoids: Luteolin Leaves [4, 39]
Apium graveolens Yellow Flavonoids: Luteolin Leaves [17, 36, 39, 43]
Daucus carrota Yellow Carotenoids et anthocyanins Rhizomes and roots [4, 34, 36, 39]
Petroselinum crispum Yellow *ND Leaves [4, 36, 39]
Araliaceae Hedera helix Violet blue Anthocyanins Fruits [4, 36, 39]
Berberidaceae Berberis vulgaris Yellow Berberine Bark, roots, stems and leaves and berries [4, 13, 36]
Betulaceae Alnus glutinosa Yellow, kaki, brown, black Tannins et flavonoids Leaves, bark [1, 4, 6, 7, 39]
Betula pendula Yellow to brown Tannins Leaves, branches, and bark. [4, 39]
Boraginaceae Alkanna tinctoria Carmine to dark purple

Naphtoquinones.

NR20 75535 Alkannine

 Roots [6, 39, 55]
Echium vulgare Violet *ND Roots and rhizomes [4, 39]
Onosma Fastigiata Violet Anthraquinones Roots [6, 39]
Origanum vulgare Violet rouge Anthraquinones Leaves [4, 36, 39, 44]
Brassicaceae Isatis tinctoria L. Blue Indigotine Leaves [4, 6, 39]
Cesalpiniaceae Caesalpinia spinosa Black Hydrolysable tannins Cloves [6, 56]
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album Yellow and green *ND Aerial Parts [4, 36, 39, 51]
Spinacia oleracea Yellow to brown Carotenoids Leaves [4, 31, 39, 43]
Clusiaceae Hypericum perforatum Yellow, orange, green Anthraquinones: hypericin Entire plant and flowers [4, 39]
Cupressaceae Juniperus Communis Ocher, apricot brown, gold or purple *ND Fruits and branches [4, 36, 39, 44]
Dennstaedtiaceae Presidium aquiline Yellow, green brown, grey, black Flavonoids et tannins Roots and rhizomes [4, 39]
Dryopteridaceae Dryopteris filix-mas Brown, grey, black Condensed tannins Roots and rhizomes [4, 39]
Ericaceae Arbutus unedo Yellow to grey Tannins Flowering branches bark and leaves. [4, 39]
Euphorbiaceae Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Green, Blue, violet Anthraquinones flavonoids Leaves [5, 7, 39, 57]
Gramineae Phragmites australis Yellow Flavones: Tricine. Aerial parts [4, 36, 37]
Herbaceae Rubiaceae Rubia tinctorium Red to orange Anthraquinone: Alizarin and Purpurin Rhizomes contain a red pigment [1, 4, 7, 13, 36, 39]
Iridaceae Crocus sativus Yellow

Carotenoïds

NY6, 75100 Crocetine.

 Red stigmas of the flower [4, 6, 7, 13, 36, 58]
Iris pseudacorus Black *ND Roots and rhizomes [4, 37]
Juglandaceae Juglans regia Green, grey, brown, black Anthraquinones The fleshy green shell nuts are known as brou. [4, 36, 39]
Lamiaceae Clinopodium vulgare Yellow *ND Leaves [4, 39]
Lycopus europaeus Black *ND Aerial parts/roots and rhizomes. [4, 39]
Rosmarinus Officinalis ND Flavones *ND [54]
Stachys officinalis Brown Tannins Leaves [4, 39]
Thymus vulgaris Yellow, orange

Flavonoids

Luteolin

 Entire plant [4, 36, 38, 39, 44]
Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis Yellow to brown, red, orange

Naphthoquinone: Lawsone

NO6 75480 Lawsone.

 Leaves [1, 4, 7, 29, 36, 39, 42, 43]
Lythrum salicaria Pink, red *ND Flowers [4, 39]
Malvaceae Alcea rosea "nigra" Violet, blue Anthocyanins Rose petals [4, 6, 39]
Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Red

Flavonoids

Anthocyanins

 Red chalices, fresh or dried. [6, 17, 38, 42]
Moraceae Ficus carica Yellow Flavonols–anthocyanins: Quercitine Leaves [4, 34, 36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 51, 55]
Morus nigra Yellow, green, brown *ND Leaves [4, 36, 38, 39, 43]
Myricaceae Myrica gale Yellow *ND Leaves [4, 36, 58]
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus Yellow to brown Quercitin Leaves [16, 36, 41, 49-51]
Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea alba Grey to black Tannins Roots and rhizomes [1, 4, 5, 7, 13, 39]
Oleaceae Ligustrum vulgare Blue, yellow Anthocyanin et Flavonoids. Leaves, bark, fruit and branches [1, 4, 5, 7, 39]
Papaveraceae Papaver rhoeas Red, pink, violet Anthocyanins et flavonoids Flowers [4, 39, 43, 51]
Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca americana Red, pink Betalaines Berries. [4, 24, 39]
Pinaceaes Pinus sp Yellow to brown Tannins and anthocyanins Cones, fresh bark [4, 39]
Poaceae Sorghum bicolor Sogho’s Red carmin Anthocyanins et tannins Stems, leaf sheaths [4, 6, 34]
Polygonaceae Polygonum aviculare Yellow Quercetol Entire plant [4, 39, 43, 59]
Rumex crispus L. Red, violet, orange *ND Roots and leaves [4, 39]
Punicaceae Punica granatum Yellow Ellagitannins Bark and fruits [5, 6, 13, 17, 36, 38, 39]
Resedaceae Reseda luteola L. Yellow

Flavonoids: Luteolin

NY2: 75580 Luteolol, 75580; 75590 Apigenol

 Flowers, aerial parts. [4, 6, 13, 39, 51]
Rhamnaceae Frangula alnus Brown, blue, green Flavonoids Bark and berries [4, 6, 15, 39]
Rhamnus cathartica Yellow, brown, red, green Flavonoids Anthraquinones Bark and berries [4, 39]
Rhamnus alaternus L. Red, violer, orange Flavonoids: Anthraquinones Bark and berries [6, 15, 39, 41]
Rhamnus lycioides subsp. Oleides L. Yellow Flavonols: Anthraquinone/Rhamnétine (CI75640), Quercétine (CI75670). Unripe fruit, fresh or dried [15, 39]
Rubiaceae

Galium aparine;

Galium verun (jaune),

Galium cruciata

galium mollugo

 Red, pink Anthraquinones Roots and rhizomes and flowering tops [4, 7, 39]
Rubia peregrina L. Red Anthraquinones Roots and rhizomes [15, 39]
Salicaceae Salix alba Brown, grey, black Tannins Branches, leaves, bark [4, 39]
Solanaceae Atropa bella-donna Green *ND Leaves [4, 39, 60]
Thymelaeaceae Daphne gnidium L. Yellow Flavones/luteolin, apigenine… Aerial parts [6, 36, 39, 41-43, 51, 59]
Urticaceae Urtica dioica Yellow Flavonoids Entire plant [4, 7, 38, 39, 43, 53]
Vitaceae Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris Purple, blue, grey, yellow Anthocyanin Berries and fruits [4, 24, 34, 36, 38, 39]
Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Yellow, orange

Curcumine

NY3 75300: Curcumine

 Root or rhizome [5, 7, 19, 31, 36, 48]
Zygophyllaceae Peganum harmala Pink to red Anthraquinoniques Seed [36, 38, 41-43, 45, 49, 52, 59, 61]

* ND: not determined.

CONCLUSION

There are a large number of containers plant dye molecules. They are often known for their medicinal and aromatic properties. Most of the coloring plants have antibacterial activity. Interest in these plants will grow in the coming years and despite several studies conducted worldwide commercial exploitation is very limited since their users and their properties are quite low. Nevertheless, they represent an interesting option as products environmentally friendly.

CONFLICTS OF INTERESTS

Declared none

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