WATER CHLORINATION AND ITS RELEVANCE TO HUMAN HEALTH
Keywords:
Pollution, Chlorination, Chlorine by-productsAbstract
Climatic conditions are fundamental to life on earth and their destruction or disturbance by direct or indirect human activities is the greatest
threat to human health. Human life on earth is directly associated with environmental factors such as air†and water.†Pollution of air by toxic
substances by the activities of mankind has shown to cause serious health issues, including damage to the immune, respiratory, neurological,
and reproductive systems, and other health problems like cancer. Water intended for human consumption should be free from microorganisms
and toxic substances. The impact and drastic effects of chlorinated water and their impact on human health are poorly studied. Chlorination
is an inexpensive and effective process for disinfecting water worldwide. During the disinfection, the chlorine generates hundreds of different
by-products called chlorination by-products such as trihalomethanes and halo acetic acids (HAA's) at low levels. In this article we address the
action of two HAA's, tri- and di-chloroacetic acid and their impact on the progression of cancer, respiratory disorder, and neurological anomalies.
Keywords: Pollution, Chlorination, Chlorine by-products.
Downloads
References
Barot J. Water Security: Life-Giving, Life-Saving. In Regional Health Forum; 2007. p. 55.
Terry BR. Is it safe to drink? Pa Dent J (Harrisb) 2012;79:5-6.
Moe CL, Rheingans RD. Global challenges in water, sanitation and health. J Water Health 2006;4 Suppl 1:41-57.
Sharma V, Bhadula S, Joshi BD. Impact of Mass Bathing on water quality of Ganga River during Maha Kumbh-2010. Nat Sci 2012;10:1‑5.
Corona-Vasquez B, Samuelson A, Rennecker JL, Mariñas BJ. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts with ozone and free chlorine. Water Res 2002;36(16):4053-63.
von Gunten U. Ozonation of drinking water: Part I. Oxidation kinetics and product formation. Water Res 2003;37(7):1443-67.
Kerwin L. Rakness EL, Krenek DL. Design, start-up, and operation of an ozone disinfection unit. Water Pollut Control Fed 1984;56:1152-9.
Kitajima M, Tohya Y, Matsubara K, Haramoto E, Utagawa E, Katayama H. Chlorine inactivation of human norovirus, murine norovirus and poliovirus in drinking water. Lett Appl Microbiol 2010;51(1):119-21.
Das TK. Evaluating the life cycle environmental performance of chlorine disinfection and ultraviolet technologies. Clean Technol Environ Policy 2002;4:32-43.
Ge F, Zhu L, Chen H. Effects of pH on the chlorination process of phenols in drinking water. J Hazard Mater 2006;133(1-3):99-105.
Backer H. Water disinfection for international and wilderness travelers. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34(3):355-64.
Glaze WH. Drinking-water treatment with ozone. Environ Sci Technol 1987;21(3):224-30.
Kumari S, Rastogi RP, Singh KL, Singh SP, Sinha RP. DNA damage: Detection strategies. Excli J 2008;7:44-62.
Cotton CA, Owen DM, Cline GC, Brodeur TP. UV disinfection costs for inactivating Cryptosporidiumâ€. J Am Water Works Assoc 2001;93:82‑94.
Wojtenko I, Stinson MK, Field R. Challenges of combined sewer overflow disinfection by ultraviolet light irradiation. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 2001;31:223-39.
Quick RE, Venczel LV, González O, Mintz ED, Highsmith AK, Espada A, et al. Narrow-mouthed water storage vessels and in situ chlorination in a Bolivian community: A simple method to improve drinking water quality. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996;54(5):511-6.
Vetrano KM. Molecular chlorine: Health and environmental effects. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 2001;170:75-140.
Spitz KH. A Practical Guide to Ground Water and Solute Transport Modeling. New York: Wiley-Inter-Science; 1996.
Morris RD, Audet AM, Angelillo IF, Chalmers TC, Mosteller F. Chlorination, chlorination by-products, and cancer: A meta-analysis. Am J Public Health 1992;82(7):955-63.
Driedger SM, Eyles J, Elliott SD, Cole DC. Constructing scientific authorities: Issue framing of chlorinated disinfection byproducts in public health. Risk Anal 2002;22(4):789-802.
Legay C, Rodriguez, MJ, Serodes JB, Levallois P. Estimation of chlorination by-products presence in drinking water in epidemiological studies on adverse reproductive outcomes: A review. Sci Total Environ 2011;408:456-72.
Hua G, Reckhow DA. Comparison of disinfection byproduct formation from chlorine and alternative disinfectants. Water Res 2007;41(8):1667‑78.
Gardella JR, Hill JA rd. Environmental toxins associated with recurrent pregnancy loss. Semin Reprod Med 2000;18:407-24.
Karrow NA, Guo TL, McCay JA, Johnson GW, Brown RD, Musgrove DL, et al. Evaluation of the immunomodulatory effects of the disinfection by-product, sodium chlorite, in female B6C3F1 mice: A drinking water study. Drug Chem Toxicol 2001;24(3):239-58.
Auttachoat W, Germolec DR, Collins BJ, Luebke RW, White KL Jr, Guo TL. Immunotoxicological profile of chloroform in female B6C3F1 mice when administered in drinking water. Drug Chem Toxicol 2009;32(1):77-87.
Kim SH, Park DE, Lee HS, Kang HR, Cho SH. Chronic low dose chlorine exposure aggravates allergic inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness and activates inflammasome pathway. PLoS One 2014;9(9):e106861.
Kerkvliet NI, Oughton JA. Acute inflammatory response to sheep red blood cell challenge in mice treated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD): Phenotypic and functional analysis of peritoneal exudate cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1993;119(2):248-57.
Carr AC, Vissers MC, Domigan NM, Winterbourn CC. Modification of red cell membrane lipids by hypochlorous acid and haemolysis by preformed lipid chlorohydrins. Redox Rep 1997;3(5-6):263-71.
Kirchhoff LV, McClelland KE, Do Carmo Pinho M, Araujo JG, De Sousa MA, Guerrant RL. Feasibility and efficacy of in-home water chlorination in rural North-eastern Brazil. J Hyg (Lond) 1985;94(2):173-80.
Daniel FB, Schenck KM, Mattox JK, Lin EL, Haas DL, Pereira MA. Genotoxic properties of haloacetonitriles: Drinking water by-products of chlorine disinfection. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1986;6(3):447-53.
Komulainen H. Experimental cancer studies of chlorinated by-products. Toxicology 2004;198(1-3):239-48.
Maronpot RR, Anna CH, Devereux TR, Lucier GW, Butterworth BE, Anderson MW. Considerations concerning the murine hepatocarcinogenicity of selected chlorinated hydrocarbons. Prog Clin Biol Res 1995;391:305-23.
Khudhair AR, Numan IT. Possible cardio-protective effects of telmisartan againist 5-fluorouracil-induced cadiotoxicity in wister rats. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci 2014;6(6):397.
Issemann I, Green S. Activation of a member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily by peroxisome proliferators. Nature 1990;347(6294):645-50.
Peters JM, Cattley RC, Gonzalez FJ. Role of PPAR alpha in the mechanism of action of the nongenotoxic carcinogen and peroxisome proliferator Wy-14,643. Carcinogenesis 1997;18(11):2029-33.
Coffman JM, Cabana MD, Halpin HA, Yelin EH. Effects of asthma education on children’s use of acute care services: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2008;121(3):575-86.
Vlassoff C. Gender differences in determinants and consequences of health and illness. J Health Popul Nutr 2007;25(1):47-61.
Rabe KF, Vermeire PA, Soriano JB, Maier WC. Clinical management of asthma in 1999: The Asthma Insights and Reality in Europe (AIRE) study. Eur Respir J 2000;16(5):802-7.
Thickett KM, McCoach JS, Gerber JM, Sadhra S, Burge PS. Occupational asthma caused by chloramines in indoor swimming-pool air. Eur Respir J 2002;19(5):827-32.
Richardson SD, DeMarini DM, Kogevinas M, Fernandez P, Marco E, Lourencetti C, et al. What’s in the pool? A comprehensive identification of disinfection by-products and assessment of mutagenicity of chlorinated and brominated swimming pool water. Environ Health Perspect 2010;118(11):1523-30.
Weisel CP, Richardson SD, Nemery B, Aggazzotti G, Baraldi E, Blatchley ER 3rd, et al. Childhood asthma and environmental exposures at swimming pools: State of the science and research recommendations. Environ Health Perspect 2009;117(4):500-7.
Uyan ZS, Carraro S, Piacentini G, Baraldi E. Swimming pool, respiratory health, and childhood asthma: Should we change our beliefs? Pediatr Pulmonol 2009;44(1):31-7.
Chan-Yeung M. Occupational asthma. Environ Health Perspect 1995;103 Suppl 6:249-52.
Bernard A, Carbonnelle S, Michel O, Higuet S, De Burbure C, Buchet JP, et al. Lung hyperpermeability and asthma prevalence in schoolchildren: Unexpected associations with the attendance at indoor chlorinated swimming pools. Occup Environ Med 2003;60(6):385-94.
Mølbak K, Jensen H, Ingholt L, Aaby P. Risk factors for diarrheal disease incidence in early childhood: A community cohort study from Guinea-Bissau. Am J Epidemiol 1997;146(3):273-82.
Newberger DS. Down syndrome: Prenatal risk assessment and diagnosis. Am Fam Physician 2000;62(4):825-32, 837.
Leonard H, Wen X. The epidemiology of mental retardation: Challenges and opportunities in the new millennium. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2002;8(3):117-34.
Markram H, Rinaldi T, Markram K. The intense world syndrome – An alternative hypothesis for autism. Front Neurosci 2007;1(1):77-96.
Graves CG, Matanoski GM, Tardiff RG. Weight of evidence for an association between adverse reproductive and developmental effects and exposure to disinfection by-products: A critical review. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2001;34(2):103-24.
Ratajczak HV. Theoretical aspects of autism: Causes – A review. J Immunotoxicol 2011;8(1):68-79.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
The publication is licensed under CC By and is open access. Copyright is with author and allowed to retain publishing rights without restrictions.