Human Pathogenic Mycotoxins: Current Research and Emerging Trends

Authors

  • VIVEK CH Department of Zoology and Aquaculture, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India. http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0543-3281
  • BHASKAR M Department of Zoology, Division of Animal Biotechnology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India.
  • VEERAIAH K Departwmnt of Zoology and Aquaculture, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Keywords:

Foodstuff, Mycotoxins, Human research

Abstract

Fish utilization has been growing worldwide, primarily due to the availability, access, and price in relevance different style of meat consumption, such as grouse, pork, and poultry. Therefore, some problems begin to return back forward, primarily regarding the quality of fish on the market among the market. Fish health management is one all told the foremost vital problems among the assembly of cultivation species. Associate in nursing integer of studies has been conducted to acknowledge new procedures for reducing health problem of usually farmed species. Residues may be gift in any product of animal origin reason cost-effective losses and putt into a hazard human and animal welfare. Foodstuff contamination by mycotoxins may be a risk to human and animal health, and its in command of vital economic losses. Scenery phytotoxin laws are a flowery activity that involves interested parties and several other factors, each of a scientific and socio-economic nature might influence the institution of plant toxin limits and rules. The many countries had developed definite limits for mycotoxins in foodstuffs and feedstuffs, and therefore the number persists to grow, but the residual acceptable of mycotoxins within the fish remains nonexistent. Poison formation in agriculture foodstuffs happens in hot and wet weather, and inadequate or deficient storage facilities. In recent years, aflatoxins (AFs) and its environmental effects area unit mentioned in cultivation. This review is concentrated on effects of AFs in development.

Author Biography

VIVEK CH, Department of Zoology and Aquaculture, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Dept. of zoology and aquaculture

References

Abbas HK, Bellaloui N, Bruns HA. Investigating transgenic corn hybrids as a method for mycotoxin control. Food and Nutr Sci 2016;7:44.

Fremy JM, AFSSA. Evaluation des Risques Lies a la Presence de Mycotoxines dans Leschaines Alimentaires Humaine et Animale. Rapport Final. Coordination Scientifique; 2009. p. 308.

Alberts JF, Engelbrecht Y, Steyn PS, Holzapfel WH, van Zyl WH. Biological degradation of aflatoxin B1 by Rhodococcus erythropolis cultures. Int J Food Microbiol 2006;109:121-6.

Albonico M, Cortinovis C, Caloni F. In vitro toxicity of beauvericin alone and combined with fumonisin B1 or deoxynivalenol on Caco- 2 cells. Int J Health Anim Science Food Safety, 2016;3:???

Alcano MD, Jahn RC, Scherer CD, Wigmann ÉF, Moraes VM, Garcia MV, et al. Susceptibility of Aspergillus spp. to acetic and sorbic acids based on pH and effect of sub-inhibitory doses of sorbic acid on ochratoxin a production. Food Res Int 2016;81:25-30.

Alizadeh AM, Rohandel G, Roudbarmohammadi S, Roudbary M, Sohanaki H, Ghiasian SA, et al. Fumonisin B1 contamination of cereals and risk of esophageal cancer in a high risk area in Northeastern Iran. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2012;13:2625-8.

Andersen MR, Salazar MP, Schaap PJ, van de Vondervoort PJ, Culley D, Thykaer J, et al. Comparative genomics of citric-acid-producing Aspergillus niger ATCC 1015 versus enzyme-producing CBS 513.88. Genome Res 2011;21:885-97.

Arduini F, Neagu D, Pagliarini V, Scognamiglio V, Leonardis MA, Gatto E, et al. Rapid and label-free detection of ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1 using an optical portable instrument. Talanta 2016;150:440 8.

Asghar MA, Iqbal J, Ahmed A, Khan MA, Shamsuddin ZA, Jamil K, et al. Development and validation of a high-performance liquid chromatography method with post-column derivatization for the detection of aflatoxins in cereals and grains. Toxicol Ind Health 2016;32:1122-34.

Asghar MA, Zahir E, Rantilal S, Ahmed A, Iqbal J. Aflatoxins in composite spices collected from local markets of Karachi, Pakistan. Food Addit Contam Part B Surveill 2016;9:113-9.

Balbus JM, Boxall AB, Fenske RA, McKone TE, Zeise L. Implications of global climate change for the assessment and management of human health risks of chemicals in the natural environment. Environ Toxicol Chem 2013;32:62-78.

Barani A, Nasiri Z, Jarrah N. Natural occurrence of aflatoxins in commercial pepper in Iran. Food Agric Immunol 2016;27:570-6.

Binder EM. Managing the risk of mycotoxins in modern feed production. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2007;133:149-66.

Blankson GK, Mill-Robertson FC. Aflatoxin contamination and exposure in processed cereal-based complementary foods for infants and young children in greater Accra, Ghana. Food Control 2016;64:212 7.

Bulder AS, et al. Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012.

Cabañes FJ, Accensi F, Bragulat MR, Abarca ML, Castellá G, Minguez S, et al. What is the source of ochratoxin a in wine? Int J Food Microbiol 2002;79:213-5.

Chew YL, Xing J, Lim LG, Zhan Z. A High Sensitivity LC/MS/ MS Method with QuEChERS Sample Pre-treatment for Analysis of Aflatoxins in Milk Powder Samples; 2016.

Clark ES. Impact of Sex and Age on Deoxynivalenol-Induced Anorexia using a Murine Model. Michigan: Michigan State University; 2015.

Colvin BM, Harrison LR. Fumonisin-induced pulmonary edema and hydrothorax in swine. Mycopathologia 1992;117:79-82.

Dellafiora L, Perotti A, Galaverna G, Buschini A, Dall’Asta C. On the masked mycotoxin zearalenone-14-glucoside. Does the mask truly hide? Toxicon 2016;111:139-42.

Diaz DE. The Mycotoxin Blue Book. Nottingham: University Press; 2005.

Durolojkova E, Bajro MH, Panovska TK. The Toxicology of Aflatoxins and Public Awareness. Your Hosts Macedonian Pharmaceutical Association and Faculty of Pharmacy. Skopje: SS Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje; 2016. p. 657.

El Khoury A, Rizk T, Lteif R, Azouri H, Delia ML, Lebrihi A, et al. Occurrence of ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1-producing fungi in Lebanese grapes and ochratoxin a content in musts and finished wines during 2004. J Agric Food Chem 2006;54:8977-82.

El Khoury R, Atoui A, Verheecke C, Maroun R, El Khoury A, Mathieu F, et al. Essential oils modulate gene expression and ochratoxin A production in Aspergillus carbonarius. Toxins (Basel) 2016;8:E242.

Fan S, Zhang F, Liu S, Yu C, Guan D, Pan C, et al. Removal of aflatoxin B(1) in edible plant oils by oscillating treatment with alkaline electrolysed water. Food Chem 2013;141:3118-23.

Ferrara M, Perrone G, Gambacorta L, Epifani F, Solfrizzo M, Gallo A, et al. Identification of a halogenase involved in the biosynthesis of ochratoxin A in Aspergillus carbonarius. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016;82:5631-41.

Filazi A, Ince S, Temamogullari F. Survey of the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in cheeses produced by dairy ewe’s milk in Urfa city, Turkey. Vet J Ankara Univ 2010;57:197-9.

Fleck SC, Churchwell MI, Doerge DR, Teeguarden JG. Urine and serum biomonitoring of exposure to environmental estrogens II: Soy isoflavones and zearalenone in pregnant women. Food Chem Toxicol 2016;95:19-27.

Galtier P, Loisaeu N, Oswald I, Puel OP. Toxicologie des mycotoxines: Dangers et risques en alimentation humaine et animale toxicology of mycotoxins: Hazards and risks in human and animal food. Bull Acad Vet Fr 2006;159:5-13.

Gelderblom WC, Marasas WF, Lebepe-Mazur S, Swanevelder S, Abel S. Cancer initiating properties of fumonisin B1 in a short-term rat liver carcinogenesis assay. Toxicology 2008;250:89-95.

Gonçalves RA, Naehrer K, Santos GA. Occurrence of mycotoxins in commercial aquafeeds in Asia and Europe: A real risk to aquaculture. Rev Aquac 2016;10:263-80.

Gündinç U, Filazi A. Detection of aflatoxin M1 concentrations in UHT milk consumed in Turkey markets by ELISA. Pak J Biol Sci 2009;12:653-6.

Herzallah S, Alshawabkeh K, Fataftah AA. Aflatoxin decontamination of artificially contaminated feeds by sunlight, c-radiation, and microwave heating. J Appl Poult Res 2008;17:515-21.

Hooft JM, Elmor A, Ibraheem EH, Encarnacrao P, Bureau DP. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is extremely sensitive to the feed-borne Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). Aquaculture 2011;311:224-32.

Hou R, Jiang C, Zheng Q, Wang C, Xu JR. The areA transcription factor mediates the regulation of deoxynivalenol (DON) synthesis by ammonium and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) signalling in Fusarium graminearum. Mol Plant Pathol 2015;16:987-99.

Hu Y, Kong W, Luo H, Zhao L, Yang M. Dynamic variation of bioactive compounds and aflatoxins in contaminated Radix Astragali during extraction process. J Sci Food Agric 2016;96:1571-9.

Hwang JH, Lee KG. Reduction of aflatoxin B1 contamination in wheat by various cooking treatments. Food Chem 2006;98:71-5.

IARC. Monographs on the Evaluation FO Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Lyon, France: IARC Press; 2002. p. 489-521.

International Agency for Research on Cancer. Some traditional herbal medicines, some mycotoxins, naphthalene and styrene. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 2002;82:171-300.

International Agency for Research on Cancer. Chemical agents and related occupations. A review of human carcinogens. IARC MonogrEval Carcinog Risks Hum 2012;100F:225-44.

Iqbal SZ, Jinap S, Pirouz AA, Faizal AR. Aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products, occurrence and recent challenges: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2015;46:110-9.

JECFA. Evaluation of Certain Mycotoxins in Food: 56th Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Technical Report Series, No. 906. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2002. Available from: http://www. whqlibdoc.who.int/ trs/WHO_TRS_906.pdf?ua=1. [Last accessed on 2013 Jun].

Jia R, Ma Q, Fan Y, Ji C, Zhang J, Liu T, et al. The toxic effects of combined aflatoxins and zearalenone in naturally contaminated diets on laying performance, egg quality and mycotoxins residues in eggs of layers and the protective effect of Bacillus subtilis biodegradation product. Food Chem Toxicol 2016;90:142-50.

Karczmarczyk A, Reiner-Rozman C, Hageneder S, Dubiak- Szepietowska M, Dostálek J, Feller KH, et al. Fast and sensitive detection of ochratoxin A in red wine by nanoparticle-enhanced SPR. Anal Chim Acta 2016;937:143-50.

Kiama TN, Lindahl JF, Sirma AJ, Senerwa DM, Waithanji EM, Ochungo PA, et al. Kenya dairy farmer perception of moulds and mycotoxins and implications for exposure to aflatoxins: A gendered analysis. Afr J Food Agric Nutr Dev 2016;16:11106-25.

Krogh P, Hald B, Pedersen EJ. Occurrence of ochratoxin A and citrinin in cereals associated with mycotoxic porcine nephropathy. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand B Microbiol Immunol 1973;81:689-95.

Kuiper-Goodman T, Scott PM. Risk assessment of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A. Biomed Environ Sci 1989;2:179-248.

Lee J, Her JY, Lee KG. Reduction of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) in soybean-based model systems. Food Chem 2015;189:45-51.

Lessard M, Savard C, Deschene K, Lauzon K, Pinilla VA, Gagnon CA, et al. Impact of deoxynivalenol (DON) contaminated feed on intestinal integrity and immune response in swine. Food Chem Toxicol 2015;80:7-16.

Liu Y, Lu Y, Wang L, Chang F, Yang L. Occurrence of deoxynivalenol in wheat, Hebei province, China. Food Chem 2016;197 Pt B:1271-4.

Ma H, Sun J, Zhang Y, Bian C, Xia S, Zhen T, et al. Label-free immunosensor based on one-step electrodeposition of chitosan-gold nanoparticles biocompatible film on au microelectrode for determination of aflatoxin B1 in maize. Biosens Bioelectron 2016;80:222-9.

Madheswaran R, Balachandran C, Murali Manohar B. Influence of dietary culture material containing aflatoxin and T(2) toxin on certain serum biochemical constituents in Japanese quail. Mycopathologia 2004;158:337-41.

Marasas WF, Kellerman TS, Gelderblom WC, Coetzer JA, Thiel PG, van der Lugt JJ, et al. Leukoencephalomalacia in a horse induced by fumonisin B1 isolated from Fusarium moniliforme. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 1988;55:197-203.

Marin S, Ramos AJ, Cano-Sancho G, Sanchis V. Mycotoxins: Occurrence, toxicology, and exposure assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2013;60:218-37.

Menza NC, Muturi MW, Kamau LM. Oil contents and aflatoxin levels in peanuts varieties produced in Busia and Kisii central districts Kenya. Trop Med Surg 2016;4:1.

Mexía-Salazar AL, Hernández-López J, Burgos-Hernández A, Cortez- Rocha MO, Castro-Longoria R, Ezquerra-Brauer JM, et al. Role of fumonisin B1 on the immune system, histopathology, and muscle proteins of white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Food Chem 2008;110:471-9.

Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. Aflatoxin Risk Profile; 2010. Available from: http://www.foodnara.go.kr /foodnara/boardread. do?boardNo=1309162875941andcommand =READ&mid=S07_05 _03&boardId=series. [Last accessed on 2014 Mar 16].

Mishra RK, Hayat A, Catanante G, Istamboulie G, Marty JL. Sensitive quantitation of ochratoxin A in cocoa beans using differential pulse voltammetry based aptasensor. Food Chem 2016;192:799-804.

Mitchell NJ, Xue KS, Lin S, Marroquin-Cardona A, Brown KA, Elmore SE, et al. Calcium montmorillonite clay reduces AFB1 and FB1 biomarkers in rats exposed to single and co-exposures of aflatoxin and fumonisin. J Appl Toxicol 2014;34:795-804.

Moore RJ. Necrotic enteritis predisposing factors in broiler chickens. Avian Pathol 2016;45:275-81.

Nikbakht MR, Lachiniyan S, Rahbar S, Oubari F, Rostami Z, Tajehmiri A. Aflatoxin M1 contamination in traditional yoghurts produced in Guilan province Iran. Asian J Pharm Res Health Care 2016;8:1-3.

Oplatowska-Stachowiak M, Sajic N, Xu Y, Haughey SA, Mooney MH,Gong YY, et al. Fast and sensitive aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxins ELISAs for analysis of peanuts, maize and feed ingredients. Food Control 2016;63:239-45.

Orriss GD. Animal diseases of public health importance. Emerg Infect Dis 1997;3:497.

Park JW, Kim YB. Effect of pressure cooking on aflatoxin B1 in rice. J Agric Food Chem 2006;54:2431-5.

Pérez-Acosta JA, Burgos-Hernandez A, Velázquez-Contreras CA, Márquez-Ríos E, Torres-Arreola W, Arvizu-Flores AA, et al. An in vitro study of alkaline phosphatase sensitivity to mixture of aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1 in the hepatopancreas of coastal lagoon wild and farmed shrimp Litopenaeus Vannamei. Mycotoxin Res 2016;32:117 25.

Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Manderville RA. Ochratoxin A: An overview on toxicity and carcinogenicity in animals and humans. Mol Nutr Food Res 2007;51:61-99.

Pizzo F, Caloni F, Schreiber NB, Cortinovis C, Spicer LJ. In vitro effects of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone major metabolites alone and combined, on cell proliferation, steroid production and gene expression in bovine small-follicle granulosa cells. Toxicon 2016;109:70-83.

Pralatnet S, Poapolathep S, Giorgi M, Imsilp K, Kumagai S, Poapolathep A, et al. Survey of deoxynivalenol and aflatoxin B1 in instant noodles and bread consumed in Thailand by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Food Prot 2016;79:1269-72.

Qiu M, Wang Y, Wang X, Sun L, Ye R, Xu D, et al. Effects of T-2 toxin on growth, immune function and hepatopancreas microstructure of shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Aquaculture 2016;462:35-9.

Ren Z, Wang Y, Deng H, Deng Y, Deng J, Zuo Z, et al. Effects of deoxynivalenol on calcium homeostasis of concanavalin A stimulated splenic lymphocytes of chickens in vitro. Exp Toxicol Pathol 2016;68:241-5.

Richard JL, Payne GA, Desjardin AE, Maragos C, Norred WP, Pestka JJ, et al. Mycotoxins Risks in Plant, Animal and Human Systems. CAST Task Force Report. Ames, Iowa, USA: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology; 2003. p. 1-217.

Savard C, Gagnon CA, Chorfi Y. Deoxynivalenol (DON) naturally contaminated feed impairs the immune response induced by porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) live attenuated vaccine. Vaccine 2015;33:3881-6.

Savard C, Provost C, Alvarez F, Pinilla V, Music N, Jacques M, et al. Effect of deoxynivalenol (DON) mycotoxin on in vivo and in vitro porcine circovirus Type 2 infections. Vet Microbiol 2015;176:257-67.

Sangsila A, Faucet-Marquis V, Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Itsaranuwat P. Detoxification of zearalenone by Lactobacillus pentosus strains. Food Control 2016;62:187-92.

Schumann B, Winkler J, Mickenautsch N, Warnken T, Dänicke S. Effects of deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and related metabolites on equine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in vitro and background occurrence of these toxins in horses. Mycotoxin Res 2016;32:153-61.

Schwartzbord JR, Brown DL. Aflatoxin contamination in Haitian peanut products and maize and the safety of oil processed from contaminated peanuts. Food Control 2015;56:114-8.

Schwartzbord JR, Leroy JL, Severe L, Brown DL. Urinary aflatoxin M1 in Port-au-Prince and a rural community in North-East Haiti. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016;33:1036-42.

Senerwa DM, Mtimet N, Sirma AJ, Nzuma J, Kang’ethe EK, Lindahl JF, et al. Direct Market Costs of Aflatoxins in Kenyan Dairy Value Chain; 2016.

Shabani A, Dastar B, Hassani S, Khomeiri M, Shabanpour B. Decreasing the effects of aflatoxins on color and oxidative stability of broiler meats using nanozeolite. J Agric Sci Technol 2016;18:109-21.

Sharma P, Manderville RA, Wetmore SD. Structural and energetic characterization of the major DNA adduct formed from the food mutagen ochratoxin A in the narI hotspot sequence: Influence of adduct ionization on the conformational preferences and implications for the NER propensity. Nucleic Acids Res 2014;42:11831-45.

Simão V, Merib J, Dias AN, Carasek E. Novel analytical procedure using a combination of hollow fiber supported liquid membrane and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction for the determination of aflatoxins in soybean juice by high performance liquid chromatography - fluorescence detector. Food Chem 2016;196:292 300.

Shier WT, Shier AC, Xie W, Mirocha CJ. Structure-activity relationships for human estrogenic activity in zearalenone mycotoxins. Toxicon 2001;39:1435-8.

Sirot V, Fremy JM, Leblanc JC. Dietary exposure to mycotoxins and health risk assessment in the second French total diet study. Food Chem Toxicol 2013;52:1-1.

Soderström M, Börjesson T, Roland B, Stadig H. Modelling within-field variations in deoxynivalenol (DON) content in oats using proximal and remote sensing. Precis Agric 2015;16:1-14.

Somorin Y, Akinyemi A, Bertuzzi T, Pietri A. Co-occurrence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and citrinin in “egusi” melon (Colocynthis citrullus L.) seeds consumed in Ireland and the United Kingdom. Food Addit Contam Part B 2016;9:230-5.

Stuper-Szablewska K, Szablewski T, Buśko M, Perkowski J. Changes in contents of trichothecenes during commercial grain milling. LWT Food Sci Technol 2016;69:55-8.

Sun G, Wang S, Hu X, Su J, Zhang Y, Xie Y, et al. Co-contamination of aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1 in food and human dietary exposure in three areas of China. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2011;28:461-70.

Sun J, Wu Y. Evaluation of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives from cereals in China. Food Control 2016;69:90-9.

Tadpetch K, Kaewmee B, Chantakaew K, Kantee K, Rukachaisirikul V, Phongpaichit S, et al. Synthesis and cytotoxic activities of semisynthetic zearalenone analogues. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2016;26:3612-6.

Thanner S, Czeglédi L, Schwartz-Zimmermann HE, Berthiller F, Gutzwiller A. Urinary deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) as biomarkers of DON and ZEA exposure of pigs. Mycotoxin Res 2016;32:69-75.

Tria SA, Lopez-Ferber D, Gonzalez C, Bazin I, Guiseppi-Elie A. Microfabricated biosensor for the simultaneous amperometric and luminescence detection and monitoring of ochratoxin A. Biosens Bioelectron 2016;79:835-42.

Turner NW, Subrahmanyam S, Piletsky SA. Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2009;632:168 80.

Unnevehr LJ. Food safety issues and fresh food product exports from LDCs. Agric Econ 2000;23:231-40.

Van Der Westhuizen L, Shephard GS, Gelderblom WC, Torres O, Riley RT. Fumonisin biomarkers in maize eaters and implications for human disease. World Mycotoxin J 2013;6:223-32.

Vesonder R, Peterson R, Plattner R, Weisleder D. Fumonisin B1: Isolation from corn culture, and purification by high performance liquid chromatography. Mycotoxin Res 1990;6:85-8.

Voss KA, Plattner RD, Bacon CW, Norred WP. Comparative studies of hepatotoxicity and fumonisin B1 and B2 content of water and chloroform/methanol extracts of Fusarium moniliforme strain MRC 826 culture material. Mycopathologia 1990;112:81-92.

Voss KA, Plattner RD, Riley RT, Meredith FI, Norred WP. In vivo effects of fumonisin B1-producing and fumonisin B1-nonproducing Fusarium moniliforme isolates are similar: Fumonisins B2 and B3 cause hepato and nephrotoxicity in rats. Mycopathologia 1998;141:45 58.

Voss KA, Riley RT, Snook ME, Waes JG. Reproductive and sphingolipid metabolic effects of fumonisin B(1) and its alkaline hydrolysis product in LM/Bc mice: Hydrolyzed fumonisin B(1) did not cause neural tube defects. Toxicol Sci 2009;112:459-67.

Voss KA, Riley RT. Fumonisin toxicity and mechanism of action: Overview and current perspectives. Food Saf 2013;1:2013006.

Waalwijk C, Kastelein P, Vries I, Kerényi Z, van der Lee T, Hesselink T, et al. Major changes in Fusarium spp. in wheat in the Netherlands. Eur J Plant Pathol 2003;109:743-54.

Weidenborner M. Mycotoxins in Foodstuffs. New York: Springer; 2008. p. 1-503.

World Health Organization. List of Priority Contaminants and Commodity Combinations; 2002. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/ publications/chem/en/tds_feb2002.pdf.

World Health Organization. Total Diet Studies: A Recipe for Safer Food; 2005. Available from: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/chem/ TDS_recipe_2005_en.pdf?ua=1. [Last accessed on 2013 Oct].

Wolfarth F, Wedekind S, Schrader S, Oldenburg E, Brunotte J. Regulation of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol by Folsomia candida (Collembola) and Aphelenchoides saprophilus (Nematoda) in an on-farm experiment. Pedobiologia 2015;58:41-7.

Wu LX, Ding XX, Li PW, Du XH, Zhou HY, Bai YZ, et al. Aflatoxin contamination of peanuts at harvest in China from 2010 to 2013 and its relationship with climatic conditions. Food Control 2016;60:117-23.

Wu L, Liao P, He L, Ren W, Yin J, Duan J, et al. Growth performance, serum biochemical profile, jejunal morphology, and the expression of nutrients transporter genes in deoxynivalenol (DON) challenged growing pigs. BMC Vet Res 2015;11:144.

Yang QH, Tan BP, Dong XH, Chi SY, Liu HY. Effects of different levels of Yucca schidigera extract on the growth and nonspecific immunity of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and on culture water quality. Aquaculture 2015;439:39-44.

Yang Y, Wen J, Kong W, Liu Q, Luo H, Wang J, et al. Simultaneous determination of four aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in ginger after inoculation with fungi by ultra-fast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Sci Food Agric 2016;96:4160-7.

Yau AT, Chen MY, Lam CH, Ho YY, Xiao Y, Chung SW, et al. Dietary exposure to mycotoxins of the Hong Kong adult population from a total diet study. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016;33:1026-35.

Zeferino CP, Wells KD, Moura AS, Murarolli RA, Rottinghaus GE, Ledoux DR. Gene expression in the kidneys of broilers fed ochratoxin a for different time periods. World Mycotoxin J 2016;9:257-68.

Zeng SL, Long WQ, Tian LX, Xie SW, Chen YJ, Yang HJ, et al. Effects of dietary aflatoxin B1 on growth performance, body composition, haematological parameters and histopathology of juvenile Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Aquac Nutr 2015;22:???.

Zhang H, Wang B. Fates of deoxynivalenol and deoxynivalenol- 3-glucoside during bread and noodle processing. Food Control 2015;50:754-7.

Zheng H, Wei S, Xu Y, Fan M. Reduction of aflatoxin B1 in peanut meal by extrusion cooking. LWT Food Sci Technol 2015;64:515-9.

Zhang H, Sun J, Zhang Y, Lu M, Sun L, Li W, et al. Retention of deoxynivalenol and its derivatives during storage of wheat grain and flour. Food Control 2016;65:177-81.

Published

01-09-2019

How to Cite

VIVEK CH, BHASKAR M, & VEERAIAH K. (2019). Human Pathogenic Mycotoxins: Current Research and Emerging Trends. Innovare Journal of Life Sciences, 7(5), 1–7. Retrieved from https://journals.innovareacademics.in/index.php/ijls/article/view/28182

Issue

Section

Review Article(s)