ETIOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF LUNG CANCER IN NON-SMOKERS: AN OVERVIEW
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22159/ijpps.2019v11i1.30247Keywords:
Lung Cancer, Non-smokers, Environmental factors, Occupational factorsAbstract
Lung cancer is the most frequent malignant tumour with the highest mortality rate around the world, leading to greater than a million deaths annually. The number of deaths due to lung cancer is expected to increase to ten million deaths per year in 2030. The major risk factor for the development of lung cancer is cigarette smoking but relatively high rates of lung cancer occur among non-smoking women and 10-25% of lung cancer observed in never smokers. The lung cancer deaths occur in never smokers have been estimated to be the 7th leading cause of cancer mortality. This article mainly discusses the important etiological factors of lung cancer in never smokers such as the environmental factors, occupational exposure, history of lung disease, family history and genetic factors, unbalanced diet and high consumption of saturated fat, radiation exposure, socioeconomic status, and infections. Gender, obesity and metabolic syndrome, race and ethnicity and interstitial lung diseases also have effects on the development of lung cancer in never smokers.
Downloads
References
Anitha P, Bhargavi J, Sravani J, Aruna B, Ramkanth S. Recent progress of dendrimers in drug delivery for cancer therapy. Int J Appl Pharm 2018;10:34-42.
Wang S, Zhao Y. Air pollution and lung cancer. Elsevier 2011. p. 26-38.
Alberg A, Wallace K, Silvestri G, Brock M. Invited commentary: the aetiology of lung cancer in men compared with women. Am J Epidemiol 2013;177:613-6.
Yousheng M, Ding Y, Jie H, Mark JK. Epidemiology of lung cancer. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 2016;25:439-45.
Durham AL, Adcock IM. The relationship between COPD and lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2015;90:121-7.
Anita N, Rakesh P, Vijay MP, Amit J, Kumar P. Lung cancer in the Indian subcontinent. South Asian J Cancer 2017;5:95-103.
Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. Cancer J Clin 2018;68:394-424.
Thomas VD, Jose B, Rennis DK. Prevalence of type and aetiology of lung cancer among the patients presented to a tertiary care hospital at central Kerala: a descriptive study. Int J Res Med Sci 2018;6:834-7.
Jemal A, Bray F, Centre MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 2011;61:69-90.
Xu Dong D, Chun Yan L, Xi Wen S, Yu Bo S, Ying Ji L. The aetiology of lung cancer in non-smoking females in Harbin, China. Lung Cancer 1996;14(Suppl 1):S85-S91.
Neal DF, Michael FL, Albert RH, Arthur S, Christian CA. Cigarette smoking and subsequent risk of lung cancer in men and women: analysis of a prospective cohort study. Lancet Oncol 2008;9:649-56.
Parikh PM, Ranade AA, Govind B, Ghadyalpatil N, Singh R, Bharat R, et al. Lung cancer in India: current status and promising strategies. South Asian J Cancer 2017;5:93-5.
Behera D. Lung cancer in India: challenges and perspectives. J Thorac Oncol 2017;12(1S):S114-S115.
Reck M, Heigener DF, Mok T, Soria JC, Rabe KF. Management of non-small-cell lung cancer: recent developments. Lancet 2013;382:709-19.
Pamela V, Ignacio IW. Lung cancer biomarkers. Hematol Oncol Clin N Am 2017;31:13-29.
Bangash NSA, Hashim N, Ismail NE. Smoking status affecting survival of adenocarcinoma lung cancer patients in Kualalumpur, Malaysia. Asian J Pharm Clin Res 2017;10:312-3.
Jinfu H, Yang M, Dagny D, Kathy W. Risk factors for lung cancer among canadian women who have never smoked. Cancer Detection Prevention 2002;26:129-38.
Kevin H, Harry JK. Should never-smokers at increased risk for lung cancer be screened? J Thorac Oncol 2015;10:1285-91.
William JM, Rafael M, Jihyoun J, Sureshb M. Lung cancer in never smokers epidemiology and risk prediction models. Risk Anal 2012;32(Suppl 1):S69-S84.
Vidyullatha P. Lung cancer incidence in never smokers: genetic and gender basis. Gene Reports 2016;4:198-207.
Charles SD, Lynn TT, Richard AM. Lung cancer: epidemiology and prevention. Clin Chest Med 2011;32:1-61.
Sebastein C, Gerard Z, Bernard M, Franck M, Pierre-Jean S. Lung cancer in never smokers-a review. Eur J Cancer 2012;48:1299-311.
Yang P. Lung cancer in never-smokers. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2011;32:10-21.
Ole Raaschou Nielson. Air pollution: another cause of lung cancer. Lancet Oncol 2013;14:788-9.
Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD, Danaei G, Shibuya K, Adair Rohani H, et al. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factors clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010:a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study. Lancet 2012;380:2224-60.
Greg AR, Mia H, Bhola S, Mei W, Binay KT, Chin BP, et al. Household air pollution and lung cancer risk among never-smokers in Nepal. Environ Res 2016;147:141-5.
William JM, Rafael M, Jihyoun J, Suresh M. Lung cancer in never smokers epidemiology and risk prediction models. Risk Anal 2012;32(Suppl 1):S69-S84.
Ying Xiu D, Qing C, Xiao Wei C, Yong Zhong C, Lan Fang H, Zhen Zhi F, et al. An epidemiological study of risk factors for lung cancer in guan Gzhou, China. Lung Cancer 1996;14(Suppl 1):S9-S37.
Raaschou Nielson OR, Anderson ZJ, Hvidberg M, Jensen SS, Ketzel M, Sorensen M, et al. Lung cancer incidence and long-term exposure to air pollution from traffic. Environ Health Perspect 2011;119:860-5.
Nyberg F, Gustavsson P, Jarup L, Bellander T, Berqlind N, Jakobsson R, et al. Urban air pollution and lung cancer in Stockholm. Epidemiology 2000;11:487-95.
Madiha K, Xiao Ji D, Yi Cao. Familial risk for lung cancer. Oncol Lett 2017;13:535-42.
Elisabetta R, Surinder KJ, Dheeraj G, Paolo B. Passive smoking and lung cancer in Chandigarh, India. Lung Cancer 1999;23:183-9.
Hackshaw AK, Law MR, Wald NJ. The accumulated evidence on lung cancer and environmental tobacco smoke. Br Med J 1997;315:980-8.
Claire HK, Yuan Chin AL, Rayjean JH, Sheila RM, Michele LC, Wei Yen L, et al. Exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke and lung cancer by histological type: a pooled analysis of the International Lung Cancer Consortium (ILCCO). Int J Cancer 2014;135:1918-30.
National Toxicology Program. Asbestos, Department of Health and Human services report on carcinogens. 12th edition. 2011. Available from: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelvth/ profiles/Asbestos.pdf. [Last accessed on 10 May 2018].
William RF, Brian LW. Occupational and environmental causes of lung cancer. Clin Chest Med 2012;33:681-703.
IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. A review of human carcinogens: arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, arsenic and arsenic compounds. Vol 100C; 2012. Available from: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/ monographs/vol100C/mono100c-6.pdf. [Last accessed on 15 Apr 2018].
Clement Duchene C, Vignaud JM, Stoufflet A, Bertrand O, Gislard A, Theberville L, et al. Characteristics of never smoker lung cancer including environmental and occupational risk factors. Lung Cancer 2010;67:144-50.
IARC Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Occupational exposure in the rubber industry. Vol. 100F; 2012. Available from: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/ monographs/vol100F/mono100F-36.pdf. [Last accessed on 12 Apr 2018].
Pronk A, Coble J, Stewart PA. Occupational exposure to diesel exhaust: a literature review. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2009;19:443-57.
National Toxicology program. Report on carcinogens, coal tars and coal-tar pitches. 12th edition. US Department of Health and Human services, Public Health Service; 2011. p. 111-3. Available from: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/twelfth/ profiles/coaltars.pdf. [Last accessed 25 Apr 2018].
Pukkala E, Martinsen JI, Lynge E, Gunnarsdottir HK, Sparen P, Tryqqvadottir L, et al. Occupation and cancer-follow-up of 15 million people in five nordic countries. Acta Oncol 2009;48:646-790.
HSDB. Hazardous substances data bank. National Library of medicine; 2012. Available from: http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/f/temp/zkjdFQ:1. [Last accessed 25 Apr 2018]
Lingling L, Tianhai T, Xinan Z. The impact of radiation the development of lung cancer. J Theor Biol 2017;428:147-52.
Hendee WR. Estimation of radiation risks: BEIR V and its significance for medicine. JAMA 1992;268:620-4.
EI Ghissassi F, Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, Bouvard B, et al. A review of human carcinogens--part D: radiation. Lancet Oncol 2009;10:751-2.
Field RW. Radon: an overview of health effects. In: Nriagu Jo. editor. Encyclopaedia of environmental health. Vol. 4. Burlington (Ontario): Elsevier; 2011. p. 745-53.
Tokuhata GK, Lilienfeld. Familial aggregation of lung cancer among hospital patients. Public Health Rep 1963;78:277-84.
Classidy A, Myles JP, Duffy SW, Liloglou T, Field JK. Family history and risk of lung cancer: age-at-diagnosis in cases and first degree relatives. Br J Cancer 2006;95:1288-90.
Elizabeth M, Gaughan, Sarah KC, Beow YY, David MJ, Daniel BC. Family history of lung cancer in never smokers with non-small cell lung cancer and its association with tumor sharboring EGFR mutations. Lung Cancer 2013;79:193-7.
Cote ML, Liu M, Bonassi S, Neri M, Schwartz AG, Christiani DC, et al. A randomized phase II trial of S-1-oxaliplatin versus capecitabine-oxaliplatin in advanced gastric cancer. Eur J Cancer 2012;48:1957-6.
Virginia LE. The epidemiology of lung cancer in women. Ann Epidemiol 1994;4:102-10.
Darren RB, Paolo B, Eric JD, Heike B, Albert R, Valerie M, et al. Previous lung diseases and lung cancer risk: a pooled analysis of the International lung cancer consortium. Am J Epidemiol 2012;176:573-85.
Azad N, Rojanasakul Y, Vallyathan V. Inflammation and lung cancer: roles of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2008;11:1-15.
Kostas A, Paschalis S, Argyris T, Evangelia N, Demosthenes B. Lung cancer and interstitial lung diseases: a systematic review. Pulm Med 2012;2012:1-11.
Schwartz AG, Cote ML, Wenzlaff AS, Vandyke A, Chen W, Ruckdeschel JC, et al. Chronic obstructive lung disease and risk of non-small cell lung cancer in women. J Thorac Oncol 2009;4:291-9.
Darren BR, John RM, Rayjean JH. Previous lung diseases and lung cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS One 2011;6:1-10.
Barnes PJ, Adcock IM. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer: a lethal association. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;184:866-7.
Menck H, Hnederson BE. Cancer incidence patterns in the pacific basin. Nat Cancer Mongr 1982;62:101-9.
Cote ML, Kardia SL, Wenzlaff AS, Ruckdeschel JC, Schwartz AG. Risk of lung cancer among white and black relatives of individuals with early-onset lung cancer. JAMA 2005;293:3036-42.
Wynder EL, Graham EA. Tobacco smoking as a possible etiologic factor in bronchiogenic carcinoma: a study of 684 proved cases. J Am Med Assoc 1950;143:329-36.
Slegel R, Ward E, Brawley O. Cancer statistics, the impact of eliminating socioeconomic and racial disparities on premature cancer deaths. CA cancer J Clin 2011;61:212-36.
Hugo DP, Eduardo DS, Alvaro R, Maria M, Julio CC. Meat consumption and risk of lung cancer; a case-control study from Uruguay. Lung Cancer 1996;14:195-205.
Behera D, Balamugesh T. Lung cancer in India. Ind J Chest Dis Allied Sci 2004;46:269-81.
Sankaranarayanan R, Varghese C, Dugffy SW, Padmakumary G, Day NE, Nair MK. A case-control study of diet and lung cancer in Kerala, South India. Int J Cancer 1994;58:644-9.
Brennan P, Hsu CC, Moullan N, Szeszenia-Dabrowska N, Lissowska J, Zaridze D, et al. Effect of cruciferous vegetables on lung cancer in patients stratified by genetic status: a mendelian randomisation approach. Lancet 2005;366:1558-60.
Cooper DA, Eldridge AL, Peters JC. Dietary carotenoids and lung cancer: a review of recent research. Nutr Rev 1999;57:133-45.
Sanskruti S, Anshika NS, Sharma N. Potential anti-cancer super foods: a mini review. Int J Curr Pharm Res 2016;8:19-21.
Mostafa H, Parisa AN, Ali MJ, Mahmoud Y, Shervin T, Kian K, et al. Nutrition and lung cancer: a case control study in Iran. BMC Cancer 2014;14:1-9.
Sugimura T, Wakabayashi K, Nagao M, Ohgaki H. Mutagens and carcinogens formed during cooking. In: Caroll KK. editor. Diet, nutrition and health. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press; 1989. p. 207-28.
Mazahar F, Rajendra P, Santosh J. Antioxidant-vitamin c: lung function; lung cancer. Asian J Pharm Clin Res 2016;9(Suppl 2):43-51.
Ping Yang. Lung cancer in never smokers. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2011;32:10-21.
Gregory DK, Christian AM. HIV infection in the etiology of lung cancer: confounding, causality, and consequences. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2011;8:326-32.
Hinds MW, Cohen HI, Kolonel LN. Tuberculosis and lung cancer risk in non-smoking women. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982;125:776-8.
Littman AJ, Jackson LA, Vaughan TL. Chlamydia pneumonia and lung cancer: epidemiologic evidence. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005;14:773-8.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
