LONG-TERM IMMUNOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF COVID-19 ON HEALTH
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2022v14i1.42311Keywords:
COVID-19, Treatment, Extra-pulmonary manifestation, Management, SARS-Cov-2Abstract
SARS-Cov-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus) that initially came to notice in December 2019 is the agent responsible for COVID-19 is still spreading rapidly worldwide and it is presently a potent danger to the world and also to the economy. Patients with COVID-19 are still at risk of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), respiratory failure, and death. Those patients whose aged more than sixty years with comorbidities, children, and healthcare workers are highly vulnerable to this virus patient shows various symptoms most commonly cough, fever, difficulty in breathing, fatigue, sore throat. The infection could be categorized into three stages: mild infection, the pulmonary stage, and the inflammatory stage. As the COVID-19 pandemic continues, it has been clear that infection caused due to SARS-Cov-2 might be responsible for the unpredicted long-term health consequences. In addition to this, it has acute respiratory manifestations, adversely SARS-Cov-2 also affects the other organ systems. However, there is limited to the management of COVID-19 related conditions of the extrapulmonary systems. After recovery, patients remain at risk for lung disease, heart disease, and mental ailment. There may be long-term consequences of adverse effects they observed in the course of COVID-19 and during its treatment. This review provided information about the extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19 that may impair the urinary, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, hematological, hematopoietic, neurological, or reproductive systems. Also, the main purpose of this article is to describe the current concern of the extra pulmonary complications that were caused due to COVID-19 and also to improve the management and diagnosis of these patients.
Downloads
References
Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, Ren R, Leung KSM, Lau EHY, Wong JY, Xing X, Xiang N, Wu Y, Li C, Chen Q, Li D, Liu T, Zhao J, Liu M, Tu W, Chen C, Jin L, Yang R, Wang Q, Zhou S, Wang R, Liu H, Luo Y, Liu Y, Shao G, Li H, Tao Z, Yang Y, Deng Z, Liu B, Ma Z, Zhang Y, Shi G, Lam TTY, Wu JT, Gao GF, Cowling BJ, Yang B, Leung GM, Feng Z. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(13):1199-207. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa2001316, PMID 31995857.
Zhang C, Shi L, Wang FS. Liver injury in COVID-19: management and challenges. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;5(5):428-30. doi: 10.1016/S2468-1253(20)30057-1, PMID 32145190.
Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, Niu P, Zhan F, Ma X, Wang D, Xu W, Wu G, Gao GF, Tan W. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727-33. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.
Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V. Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(4):562-69. doi: 10.1038/s41564-020-0688-y, PMID 32094589.
Rodríguez Puertas R. ACE2 activators for the treatment of COVID 19 patients. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):1701-2. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25992, PMID 32379346.
Gurwitz D. Angiotensin receptor blockers as tentative SARS‐CoV‐2 therapeutics. Drug Dev Res. 2020;81(5):537-40. doi: 10.1002/ddr.21656, PMID 32129518.
Gibson PG, Qin L, Puah SH. COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): clinical features and differences from typical pre- COVID -19 ARDS. Med J Aust. 2020;213(2). doi: 10.5694/mja2.50674.
Cuykx M, Mortele O, Jansens H, Schouwers S, Meskal A, Hoffbauer I, Peeters B. Serological response in health care workers after a single dose of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine using six automated SARS-CoV-2 antibody assays. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2021;101(2):115486. doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2021.115486.
Jia HP, Look DC, Shi L, Hickey M, Pewe L, Netland J, Farzan M, Wohlford-Lenane C, Perlman S, McCray PB. ACE2 receptor expression and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection depend on differentiation of human airway epithelia. J Virol. 2005;79(23):14614-21. doi: 10.1128/JVI.79.23.14614-14621.2005, PMID 16282461.
Rezaei N. COVID-19 affects healthy pediatricians more than pediatric patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020;41(9):1106-7. doi: 10.1017/ice.2020.139, PMID 32297847.
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, Qiu Y, Wang J, Liu Y, Wei Y, Xia J, Yu T, Zhang X, Zhang L. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):507-13. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20) 30211-7, PMID 32007143.
Al-Tawfiq JA, Al-Homoud AH, Memish ZA. Remdesivir as a possible therapeutic option for the COVID-19. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2020;34:101615. doi: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101615.
Kapoor K, Sanawedwala A, Rajput D, Bhardwaj S, Shrivastav K, Dhingra N. Current drug repurposing strategies in treatment ofCOVID-19. Int J ChemTech Res. 2020;13(3):125-31. doi: 10.20902/IJCTR.2019.130309.
Mitjà O, Clotet B. Use of antiviral drugs to reduce COVID-19 transmission. Lancet Glob Health. 2020;8(5):e639-40. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30114-5, PMID 32199468.
Gautret P, Lagier JC, Parola P, Hoang VT, Meddeb L, Mailhe M, Doudier B, Courjon J, Giordanengo V, Vieira VE, Tissot Dupont H, Honore S, Colson P, Chabriere E, La Scola B, Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Raoult D. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;56(1):105949. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949.
Jaffe S. Regulators split on antimalarials for COVID-19. Lancet. 2020;395(10231):1179. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30817-5, PMID 32278373.
Touret F, de Lamballerie X. Of chloroquine and COVID-19. Antiviral Res. 2020;177:104762. doi: 10.1016/ j.antiviral.2020.104762.
Zhang W, Zhao Y, Zhang F, Wang Q, Li T, Liu Z, Wang J, Qin Y, Zhang X, Yan X, Zeng X, Zhang S. The use of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of people with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): the perspectives of clinical immunologists from China. Clin Immunol. 2020;214:108393. doi: 10.1016/j.clim.2020.108393.
Cao X. COVID-19: immunopathology and its implications for therapy. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020;20(5):269-70. doi: 10.1038/s41577-020-0308-3, PMID 32273594.
Shanmugaraj B, Malla A, Phoolcharoen W. Emergence of novel coronavirus 2019-nCoV: need for rapid vaccine and biologics development. Pathogens. 2020;9(2):148. doi: 10.3390/ pathogens9020148, PMID 32098302.
Kebede T, Kumar D, Sharma PK. Potential drug options for treatment of COVID-19: a review. Coronaviruses. 2020;1(1):42-8. doi: 10.2174/2666796701999200701131604.
Khalili JS, Zhu H, Mak NSA, Yan Y, Zhu Y. Novel coronavirus treatment with ribavirin: groundwork for an evaluation concerning COVID‐19. J Med Virol. 2020;92(7):740-6. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25798, PMID 32227493.
Elfiky AA. Ribavirin, Remdesivir, Sofosbuvir, Galidesivir, Tenofovir against SARS-CoV-2. RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp): A molecular docking study. Life Sci. 2020;253:117592. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117592.
Lim J, Jeon S, Shin HY, Kim MJ, Seong YM, Lee WJ, Choe KW, Kang YM, Lee B, Park SJ. The author’s response: case of the index patient who caused tertiary transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 in Korea: the application of lopinavir/ritonavir for the treatment of COVID-19 pneumonia monitored by quantitative RT-PCR. J Korean Med Sci. 2020;35(7):e89. doi: 10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e89, PMID 32080993.
Grein J, Ohmagari N, Shin D, Diaz G, Asperges E, Castagna A, Feldt T, Green G, Green ML, Lescure FX, Nicastri E, Oda R, Yo K, Quiros Roldan E, Studemeister A, Redinski J, Ahmed S, Bernett J, Chelliah D, Chen D, Chihara S, Cohen SH, Cunningham J, D’Arminio Monforte A, Ismail S, Kato H, Lapadula G, L’Her E, Maeno T, Majumder S, Massari M, Mora-Rillo M, Mutoh Y, Nguyen D, Verweij E, Zoufaly A, Osinusi AO, DeZure A, Zhao Y, Zhong L, Chokkalingam A, Elboudwarej E, Telep L, Timbs L, Henne I, Sellers S, Cao H, Tan SK, Winterbourne L, Desai P, Mera R, Gaggar A, Myers RP, Brainard DM, Childs R, Flanigan T, Castagna A. Compassionate use of remdesivir for patients with severe covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(24):2327-36. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2007016, PMID 32275812.
Beigel JH, Tomashek KM, Dodd LE, Mehta AK, Zingman BS, Kalil AC, Hohmann E, Chu HY, Luetkemeyer A, Kline S, Lopez de Castilla D, Finberg RW, Dierberg K, Tapson V, Hsieh L, Patterson TF, Paredes R, Sweeney DA, Short WR, Touloumi G, Lye DC, Ohmagari N, Oh MD, Ruiz Palacios GM, Benfield T, Fätkenheuer G, Kortepeter MG, Atmar RL, Creech CB, Lundgren J, Babiker AG, Pett S, Neaton JD, Burgess TH, Bonnett T, Green M, Makowski M, Osinusi A, Nayak S, Lane HC, ACTT-1 Study Group Members. Remdesivir for the treatment of covid-19- final report. New England J Medicine. 2020;383(19):1813-26. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2007764, PMID 32445440.
Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, Zhang J, Wang B, Xiang H, Cheng Z, Xiong Y, Zhao Y, Li Y, Wang X, Peng Z. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA. 2020;323(11):1061-9. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.1585, PMID 32031570.
Yang X, Yu Y, Xu J, Shu H, Xia J, Liu H, Wu Y, Zhang L, Yu Z, Fang M, Yu T, Wang Y, Pan S, Zou X, Yuan S, Shang Y. Clinical course and outcomes of critically ill patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a single-centered, retrospective, observational study. Lancet Respiratory Medicine. 2020;8(5):475-81. doi: 10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30079-5, PMID 32105632.
Hui DS, Memish ZA, Zumla A. Severe acute respiratory syndrome vs. the Middle East respiratory syndrome. Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine. 2014;20(3):233-41. doi: 10.1097/MCP.0000000000000046, PMID 24626235.
Joob B, Wiwanitkit V. Novel Middle East respiratory syndrome and renal failure. Renal Failure. 20132014;36(1):147. doi: 10.3109/0886022X.2013.832316, PMID 24028462.
Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. COVID-19 infection: Origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Advanced Research. 2020;24:91-8. doi: 10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005, PMID 32257431.
He L, Zhang Q, Li Z, Shen L, Zhang J, Wang P, Wu S, Zhou T, Xu Q, Chen X, Fan X, Fan Y, Wang N. Incorporation of urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin and computed tomography quantification to predict acute kidney injury and in-hospital death in COVID-19 patients. Kidney Dis. 2020:1-11. doi: 10.1159/000511403.
Diao B, Wang C, Wang R, Feng Z, Zhang J, Yang H, Tan Y, Wang H, Wang C, Liu L, Liu Y, Liu Y, Wang G, Yuan Z, Hou X, Ren L, Wu Y, Chen Y. Human kidney is a target for novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. Nature Communications. 2021;12(1):2506. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-22781-1, PMID 33947851.
Fan C, Lu W, Li K, Ding Y, Wang J. ACE2 expression in kidney and testis may cause kidney and testis infection in COVID-19 patients. Frontiers in Medicine (Lausanne). 20212020;7:563893. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2020.563893, PMID 33521006.
Su H, Yang M, Wan C, Yi LX, Tang F, Zhu HY, Yi F, Yang HC, Fogo AB, Nie X, Zhang C. Renal histopathological analysis of 26 postmortem findings of patients with COVID-19 in China. Kidney International. 2020;98(1):219-27. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2020.04.003, PMID 32327202.
Ronco C, Reis T. Kidney involvement in COVID-19 and rationale for extracorporeal therapies. Nature Reviews Nephrology. 2020;16(6):308-10. doi: 10.1038/s41581-020-0284-7, PMID 32273593.
Sun DQ, Wang TY, Zheng KI, Targher G, Byrne CD, Chen YP, Zheng MH. Subclinical acute kidney injury in COVID-19 patients: A retrospective cohort study. Nephron. 2020;144(7):347-50. doi: 10.1159/000508502, PMID 32454505.
Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z, Xiang J, Wang Y, Song B, Gu X, Guan L, Wei Y, Li H, Wu X, Xu J, Tu S, Zhang Y, Chen H, Cao B. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1054-62. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30566-3, PMID 32171076.
Yu C.M, Wong RS, Wu EB, Kong SL, Wong J, Yip GW, Soo YO, Chiu ML, Chan YS, Hui D, Lee N, Wu A, Leung CB, Sung JJ. Cardiovascular complications of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 2006;82(964):140-44. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.2005.037515, PMID 16461478.
Ruan Q, Yang K, Wang W, Jiang L, Song J. Correction to: Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China. Intensive Care Medicine. 2020;46(6):1294-7. doi: 10.1007/s00134-020-06028-z, PMID 32253449.
Yaroshchuk NА, Kochmasheva VV, Vakhrameev AV. Cardiac complications in patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia. Med Alphabet. 2021;5(5):14-7. doi: 10.33667/2078-5631-2021-5-14-17.
Ammirati E, Cipriani M, Moro C, Raineri C, Pini D, Sormani P, Mantovani R, Varrenti M, Pedrotti P, Conca C, Mafrici A, Grosu A, Briguglia D, Guglielmetto S, Perego GB, Colombo S, Caico SI, Giannattasio C, Maestroni A, Carubelli V, Metra M, Lombardi C, Campodonico J, Agostoni P, Peretto G, Scelsi L, Turco A, Di Tano G, Campana C, Belloni A, Morandi F, Mortara A, Ciro A, Senni M, Gavazzi A, Frigerio M, Oliva F, Camici PG, Registro Lombardo delle Miocarditi. Clinical presentation and outcome in a contemporary cohort of patients with acute myocarditis: Multicenter Lombardy Registry. Circulation. 2018;138(11):1088-99. doi: 10.1161/ CIRCULATIONAHA.118.035319, PMID 29764898.
Liu Y, Yang Y, Zhang C, Huang F, Wang F, Yuan J, Wang Z, Li J, Feng C, Zhang Z, Wang L, Peng L, Chen L, Qin Y, Zhao D, Tan S, Yin L, Xu J, Zhou C, Jiang C, Liu L. Clinical and biochemical indexes from 2019-nCoV infected patients linked to viral loads and lung injury. Science China Life Sciences. 2020;63(3):364-74. doi: 10.1007/s11427-020-1643-8, PMID 32048163.
Hu Y, Li Y, Jiang F, Shao T, Hu B, Zhu J, Lai C, Yu W. Efficacy and safety of first-line therapeutic drugs with potential for the treatment of novel coronavirus pneumonia: A meta-analysis. SSRN Journal. 2020. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3627255.
Feng G, Zheng KI, Yan QQ, Rios RS, Targher G, Byrne CD, Poucke SV, Liu WY, Zheng MH. COVID-19 and liver dysfunction: current insights and emergent therapeutic strategies. Journal of Clinical and Translational Hepatology. 2020;8(1):1-7:18-24. doi: 10.14218/JCTH.2020.00018, PMID 32274342.
Gao F, Zheng KI, Wang XB, Yan HD, Sun QF, Pan KH, Wang TY, Chen YP, George J, Zheng MH. Metabolic associated fatty liver disease increases coronavirus disease 2019 disease severity in nondiabetic patients. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 20202021;36(1):204-7. doi: 10.1111/jgh.15112, PMID 32436622.
Zhou YJ, Zheng KI, Wang XB, Sun QF, Pan KH, Wang TY, Ma HL, Chen YP, George J, Zheng MH. Metabolic‐associated fatty liver disease is associated with severity of COVID‐19. Liver International. 2020;40(9):2160-3. doi: 10.1111/liv.14575, PMID 32573883.
Gao F, Zheng KI, Fan YC, Targher G, Byrne CD, Zheng MH. ACE2: A linkage for the interplay between COVID-19 and decompensated cirrhosis. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 2020;115(9):1544. doi: 10.14309/ ajg.0000000000000780, PMID 32694292.
Qi X, Liu Y, Wang J, Fallowfield JA, Wang J, Li X, Shi J, Pan H, Zou S, Zhang H, Chen Z, Li F, Luo Y, Mei M, Liu H, Wang Z, Li J, Yang H, Xiang H, Li X, Liu T, Zheng MH, Liu C, Huang Y, Xu D, Li X, Kang N, He Q, Gu Y, Zhang G, Shao C, Liu D, Zhang L, Li X, Kawada N, Jiang Z, Wang F, Xiong B, Takehara T, Rockey DC, COVID-Cirrhosis-CHESS Group. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of COVID-19 patients with pre-existing cirrhosis: a multicentre cohort study. Gut Gutjnl 2021;70(2):433-6. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-321666, PMID 32434831.
Gao F, Zheng KI, Gu JY, George J, Zheng MH. COVID‐19 and liver transplantation: Lessons learned from three reported cases. Transplant Infectious Disease. 2020;22(4):e13335. doi: 10.1111/tid.13335, PMID 32438464.
Huang JF, Zheng KI, George J, Gao HN, Wei RN, Yan HD, Zheng MH. Fatal outcome in a liver transplant recipient with COVID‐19. American Journal of Transplantation. 2020;20(7):1907-10. doi: 10.1111/ajt.15909, PMID 32277591.
Fishman JA, Grossi PA. Novel coronavirus‐19 (COVID‐19) in the immunocompromised transplant recipient: #Flatteningthecurve. American Journal of Transplantation. 2020;20(7):1765-7. doi: 10.1111/ajt.15890, PMID 32233057.
Liu B, Wang Y, Zhao Y, Shi H, Zeng F, Chen Z. Successful treatment of severe COVID‐19 pneumonia in a liver transplant recipient. American Journal of Transplantation. 2020;20(7):1891-95. doi: 10.1111/ajt.15901, PMID 32243673.
Qin J, Wang H, Qin X, Zhang P, Zhu L, Cai J, Yuan Y, Li H. Perioperative presentation of COVID‐19 disease in a liver transplant recipient. Hepatology. 2020;72(4):1491-3. doi: 10.1002/hep.31257, PMID 32220017.
Mao L, Jin H, Wang M, Hu Y, Chen S, He Q, Chang J, Hong C, Zhou Y, Wang D, Miao X, Li Y, Hu B. Neurologic manifestations of hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Neurology. 2020;77(6):683-90. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.1127, PMID 32275288.
Herman C, Mayer K, Sarwal A. Scoping review of prevalence of neurologic comorbidities in patients hospitalized for COVID-19. Neurology. 2020;95(2):77-84. doi: 10.1212/ WNL.0000000000009673, PMID 32345728.
Brooks SK, Webster RK, Smith LE, Woodland L, Wessely S, Greenberg N, Rubin GJ. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. SRN Electronic Journal Lancet. 2020;395(10227):912-20. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8, PMID 32112714.
Wu P, Fang Y, Guan Z, Fan B, Kong J, Yao Z, Liu X, Fuller CJ, Susser E, Lu J, Hoven CW. The psychological impact of the SARS epidemic on hospital employees in China: exposure, risk perception, and altruistic acceptance of risk. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 2009;54(5):302-11. doi: 10.1177/070674370905400504, PMID 19497162.
Marjanovic Z, Greenglass ER, Coffey S. The relevance of psychosocial variables and working conditions in predicting nurses’ coping strategies during the SARS crisis: an online questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2007;44(6):991-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.02.012, PMID 16618485.
Wu P, Liu X, Fang Y, Fan B, Fuller CJ, Guan Z, Yao Z, Kong J, Lu J, Litvak IJ. Alcohol abuse/dependence symptoms among hospital employees exposed to a SARS outbreak: table 1. Alcohol Alcohol. 2008;43(6):706-12. doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agn073, PMID 18790829: table 1.
Jeong H, Yim HW, Song YJ, Ki M, Min JA, Cho J, Chae JH. Mental health status of people isolated due to middle East respiratory syndrome. Epidemiology and Health. 2016;38:e2016048. doi: 10.4178/epih.e2016048, PMID 28196409.
Reynolds DL, Garay JR, Deamond SL, Moran MK, Gold W, Styra R. Understanding, compliance and psychological impact of the SARS quarantine experience. Epidemiology and Infection. 2008;136(7):997-1007. doi: 10.1017/S0950268807009156, PMID 17662167.
Hawryluck L, Gold WL, Robinson S, Pogorski S, Galea S, Styra R. SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2004;10(7):1206-12. doi: 10.3201/eid1007.030703, PMID 15324539.
Cava MA, Fay KE, Beanlands HJ, McCay EA, Wignall R. The experience of quarantine for individuals affected by SARS in Toronto. Public Health Nursing. 2005;22(5):398-406. doi: 10.1111/j.0737-1209.2005.220504.x, PMID 16229732.
Maunder RG, Lancee WJ, Balderson KE, Bennett JP, Borgundvaag B, Evans S, Fernandes CM, Goldbloom DS, Gupta M, Hunter JJ, McGillis Hall L, Nagle LM, Pain C, Peczeniuk SS, Raymond G, Read N, Rourke SB, Steinberg RJ, Stewart TE, VanDeVelde-Coke S, Veldhorst GG, Wasylenki DA. Long-term psychological and occupational effects of providing hospital healthcare during SARS outbreak. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(12):1924-32. doi: 10.3201/eid1212.060584, PMID 17326946.
Desclaux A, Badji D, Ndione AG, Sow K. Accepted monitoring or endured quarantine? Ebola contacts'’ perceptions in Senegal. Social Science and Medicine. 2017;178:38-45. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.02.009, PMID 28192745.
Gormley M, Aspray TJ, Kelly DA. COVID-19: mitigating transmission via wastewater plumbing systems. The Lancet Global Health. 2020;8(5):e643. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30112-1, PMID 32213325.
Wang Y, Zhou F, Zhang D, Zhao J, Du R, Hu Y, Cheng Z, Gao L, Jin Y, Luo G, Fu S, Lu Q, Du G, Wang K, Lu Y, Fan G, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Ruan S, Liu W, Jaki T, Hayden FG, Horby PW, Cao B, Wang C. Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of intravenous remdesivir in adult patients with severe COVID-19: study protocol for a phase 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Trials. 2020;21(1):422. doi: 10.1186/s13063-020-04352-9, PMID 32448345.
Ah A, ST Z. Preprocessing of the Candidate Antiviral Drugs against COVID-19 in models of SARS cov2 Targets. LA: Prensa Medica Argentina; 2020. p. 106.
Yao TT, Qian JD, Zhu WY, Wang Y, Wang GQ. A systematic review of lopinavir therapy for SARS coronavirus and MERS coronavirus-A possible reference for coronavirus disease-19 treatment option. J Medical Virology. 2020;92(6):556-63. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25729, PMID 32104907.
Chen J, Hu C, Chen L, Tang L, Zhu Y, Xu X, Chen L, Gao H, Lu X, Yu L, Dai X, Xiang C, Li L. Clinical study of mesenchymal stem cell treatment for acute respiratory distress syndrome induced by epidemic influenza A (H7N9) infection: A hint for COVID-19 treatment. Engineering (Beijing). 2020;6(10):1153-61. doi: 10.1016/j.eng.2020.02.006, PMID 32292627.
Ali I, Alharbi OML. COVID-19: Disease, management, treatment, and social impact. Science of The Total Environment. 2020;728:138861:138861. doi: 10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2020.138861.
Dong L, Hu S, Gao J. Discovering drugs to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Drug Discoveries and Therapeutics. 2020;14(1):58-60. doi: 10.5582/ddt.2020.01012, PMID 32147628.
Favalli EG, Biggioggero M, Maioli G, Caporali R. Baricitinib for COVID-19: a suitable treatment? The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2020;20(9):1012-13. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30262-0, PMID 32251638.
Colson P, Rolain JM, Lagier JC, Brouqui P, Raoult D. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine as available weapons to fight COVID-19. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2020;55(4):105932. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105932.
Cortegiani A, Ingoglia G, Ippolito M, Giarratano A, Einav S. A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19. Journal of Critical Care. 2020;57:279-283. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005, PMID 32173110.
Cao Y. Suggestion using alcohol vaporization or nebulization inhalation therapy for pneumonitis caused by coronavirus. SRN Journal. 2020. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3545744.
Ago H, Adachi T, Yoshida A, Yamamoto M, Habuka N, Yatsunami K, Miyano M. Crystal structure of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of hepatitis C virus. Structure. 1999;7(11):1417-26. doi: 10.1016/s0969-2126(00)80031-3, PMID 10574802.
Kouznetsova VL, Zhang A, Tatineni M, Miller MA, Tsigelny IF. Potential COVID-19 papain-like protease PLpro inhibitors: repurposing FDA-approved drugs. Peer J. 2020;8:e9965. doi: 10.7717/peerj.9965, PMID 32999768.
Iyer M, Jayaramayya K, Subramaniam MD, Lee SB, Dayem AA, Cho SG, Vellingiri B. COVID-19: an update on diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. BMB Reports. 2020;53(4):191-205. doi: 10.5483/BMBRep.2020.53.4.080, PMID 32336317.
Boopathi S, Poma AB, Kolandaivel P. Novel 2019 coronavirus structure, mechanism of action, antiviral drug promises and rule out against its treatment. Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics. 2020;1-10. doi: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1758788.
Zhai P, Ding Y, Wu X, Long J, Zhong Y, Li Y. The epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2020;55(5):105955. doi: 10.1016/ j.ijantimicag.2020.105955.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2022 Harshada Ashok kadam, Gauri kaphare
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
